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Mosaic glass, 1st century B.C.E. A bird thought to be a wagtail is shown standing and facing to the right on this cobalt ground, rectangular decorative plaque. The body feathers are white while the details are depicted in yellow, turquoise, cobalt, black, red and blue. Text and image from the website of the Miho Museum.

Mosaic glass, 1st century B.C.E./C.E. 113.Decorative Plaques with Palmettes-Lotus Motifs 114.Decorative Plaques with Plant Motifs 115.Decorative Plaques with Floral Motifs 116.Decorative Plaques with Geometric Patterns 117.Decorative Plaques with Trefoil Garland Patterns From the Ptolemaic period through the early Imperial Roman period, mosaic glass was made into a variety of decorative panels showing stylized floral patterns or abstract patterns resembling flowers, in addition to the more specific expression of individual human or vegetable forms. These patterns include the following four-petal flower, a combined arrangement of a flower centered circular or square shape with palmetto leaves, lotuses, ivy or grapes and other such plant motifs arranged the central flower (cat. No. 114), layered horizontal arrangements of plants (cat. No. 113), and bundles of three long leaves and two branches tipped with fruit arranged horizontally or in floral garland patterns (cat. No. 117), continuous arrays of abstracted forms such as small flowers, leaves, stars, and waves (cat. Nos. 115,116), and patterns which look like landscape elements. These would have been made to fit the shape of the inlay being applied to furnishings or small boxes, and thus finished in circular, square, polyhedral, vertical and horizontal rectangles, or curved forms. There are many examples where the small individual mosaic units have been combined into complex patterns, for example, the second plaque from the right of the second row from the top of cat. No. 114, is a combination of 16 different mosaic units. The majority of these decorative panel motifs were widely used as decoration in Greek architecture, or in the wall paintings and stucco of the Roman period. Text and image from the website of the Miho Museum.

The Victoria and Albert Museum &nb…

Ancient Roman Glass Jar with Handle Glass is ever-present in the world around us. As a material, it is ubiquitous in the modern world, from windows and lightbulbs to eye glasses and touch screens. Although it may seem like glass is a modern-day material, that is actually far from true. In fact, glassmaking was first developed thousands of years ago and perfected in ancient Rome. Few materials have stood the test of time in quite the same way. Remarkably, glass is still handmade using those same ingredients and techniques that were used over 2,000 years ago. Ancient glass offers us important insight not only into how this important industry formed and developed but also into the lives of those who used the material so many years ago. From the stained glass window to colored glass decorations, the glass manufacturing industry has made an impact throughout history, and not only for its beauty but for its functionality as well. Once you understand the stories and characteristics of Roman glass, you will then develop a deep-profound appreciation for this type of decorative art. Read on to learn more about the extraordinary world of ancient glass. Ancient glass beads. 775 BC. Bergstrom-Mahler Museum of Glass Early Forms and Emergence of Glass Glass-like materials that are naturally formed were widely used by Stone Age societies long before the technique to make glass was ever discovered. Obsidian, a volcanic glass, was chief among these. Obsidian was processed in a variety of ways. Not only was this material used to make weapons like spearheads, but craftsmen also created decorative objects, Roman glass jewelry, and mirrors out of this versatile glass-like material. Only found in volcanic areas, obsidian objects became heavily traded throughout the ancient world. Modern-day research into these artifacts offers us insight into the complex trade routes and networks that existed thousands of years ago. When And Where Was Glass First Created? So just how and when did the techniques of glassmaking first emerge? Unfortunately, the exact when and where is information that we may never know. Some believe it first emerged in Mesopotamia around 5000 BC, approximately the same time a new material called faience was developed. In his Naturalis Historia (Natural History), Pliny the Elder also dates the origins of glass to this period, but claims it was discovered by Phoenician merchants moored on the river Belus near modern-day Israel. He recounts how these men “accidentally” discovered the art of glassmaking after making a fire on a sandy beach to cook a meal. The flames, Pliny claimed, burned so hot they melted the sand beneath them, creating a river of melted sand that cooled into glass. Though we know today such a scenario is impossible, the story contributed to the local lore of Ptolemais, an ancient site renowned for its glassmaking. Most scholars agree that the first glass objects date to 1,500 years later - around 3500 BC in Mesopotamia. These objects, primarily beads, were developed from the same materials that were once used to make glazes on ceramic pots and vases, and they were quickly spread throughout the region - particularly to ancient Egypt - by merchants and traders. The History of Ancient Glassmaking Glass is remarkably difficult to produce - it requires high temperatures the order for its materials to melt and fuse. Then it must be worked while still molten and cooled slowly to prevent cracking. Due to this difficulty, the earliest glass was a rare luxury. Thus, it was made almost exclusively for the Egyptian royal courts by palace craftsman, and their recipes and techniques were a closely guarded secret. It wasn't until the seventh century BC that the first known written documentation of ancient glassmaking was produced. These Mesopotamian cuneiform tablets from the library of King Assurbanipal (668-627 B.C.) record glassmaking techniques going back to 1300 BC, and describe not only the ingredients necessary to produce glass, but also details tips to ensure success - ritual sacrifices, special purifications, and the days most favored by the gods to work the kiln. Egyptian core formed vase. 1400-1300 BC. Corning Museum of Glass. Core-Forming Glass While the earliest known glass creations were simple beads, the glass industry soon developed new techniques to create the type of glass objects we know today - cups, bowls, pots and more. These were first made using the core forming technique, which developed around 1500 BC. In this method, a core was created from clay in the approximate shape of the desired glass object, and is then attached to the end of a metal rod. From there, molten glass was wound around the core material in order to create the shape of the vessel. The glass was then slowly cooled and the core removed to complete the piece. Core-formed glass was made in a variety of colors during this period. Because so many pieces were made exclusively for the royal family, semi-precious stones such as lapis lazuli and turquoise were ground and added to molten glass in order to produce vibrant colors. Thus, early glass was sometimes referred to as "artificial stone" or "lapis lazuli from the kiln." Today, it is still widely admired for its exceptional finish and luminous color. Mold-blown Head flask. 4th - 5th century AD. The J. Paul Getty Museum. Glass and Ancient Rome After the fall of the late Bronze Age empires in Greece, Mesopotamia and ancient Egypt, the glass production of glass temporarily came to a centuries-long halt. It wasn't until around 900 BC when the practice reemerged, and by 600 BC glass was back in full production. Though by this time glass objects from Mesopotamia had spread throughout the Mediterranean and made their way to Etruria (modern Tuscany) and Magna Graecia (areas of southern Italy), these molten glass objects have not been found to any large extent in central Italy or Rome. This lack suggests that the Roman glass industry developed quite independently - and quite rapidly - in the region during the first century AD. Undoubtedly, Rome's place as the dominant economic and military power helped to attract craftsman from other regions, some of whom would have helped introduce the art of glassmaking into the region. It helped that there was no lack of patrons, wealthy or otherwise, to purchase glassware. It was also during this period - a time of great industrial development in Rome - when the glassmaking industry would experience its most important and greatest technical advancement: glass blowing. Glass Blowing While early Roman glass carried on the traditions and decorative tastes of the Hellenistic period, the discovery of glassblowing dramatically changed both how glass was produced and its decorative forms. The new technique is nearly identical to the glass blowing process still used today. Two ingredients were used in the glassmaking process: sodium carbonate and silica. In order to get the silica to melt at a lower temperature, Roman glassmakers would add sodium carbonate to lower the ingredients' melting point. They would also add a stabilizer ingredient such as magnesia or lime to finish the mixture. If the craftsmen wanted to make a colored glass, they could add a coloring agent or other minerals before finishing their final product. Then, a piece of molten glass was inflated into a bubble using a hollow metal blowpipe, and that bubble was manipulated to take the desired shape. Glass could also be blown into a wooden or metal carved mold, so the final shape of the glass piece was determined by the interior shape of the mold, not the skill of the glassmaker. Mold-blown glass bottle in the shape of a fish. 1st century to 2nd century AD. Metropolitan Museum of Art. It is unclear which of the glass blowing techniques were introduced first, but both were widely used by the first century AD. Glass became far more translucent; the bright colors and intricate patterns of core-formed glass were abandoned in favor of thinness and transparency. Suddenly, a far wider range of forms and styles could be created by glassmakers, and in a far shorter amount of time. This colorless glass served as a blank canvas for artists to perform their creative mastery. Blown glass handkerchief bowl with decorative trail. 3rd-4th century AD. Metropolitan Museum of Art. Types of Glass Objects With glass blowing, glass objects became far easier and more inexpensive to produce, and thus they could be found in most homes throughout the Roman empire. Many gave up their ceramic drinking vessels in favor of glass vessels. Wine and other goods were shipped, stored and served from glass bottles and jugs. Perfumes and essential oils were held in diminutive glass bottles. Even glass window panes emerged in the late 3rd century AD. Just like today, glass was used in almost every aspect of daily life in ancient Rome. Ancient Roman Glass Alabastra The most commonly found glass objects that are uncovered today are glass alabastra, unguentaria, and other small bottles. These glass vessels were used to hold the spices, perfumes or medicines that were so integral to Roman life, and thus they were used by nearly every individual in ancient Roman society. The bottles were made in nearly every shape and size imaginable, from short and bulbous to tall and thin, and many were decorated with engraving, cold painting, or gilding. Applied threads of glass were the most common form of decoration, made from heated rods of glass that were quickly laid onto an existing glass object. Different colored threads were laid down in rows, spirals, zigzags and other optical patterns to create elaborate decorative effects. Glass was also widely used in jewelry as a less expensive alternative to precious and semiprecious stones such as emerald, lapis lazuli, rock crystal, garnet, and amethyst. Shards of glass were made into elegant necklaces, earrings, bracelets, or pendants. Since Roman glass varies significantly depending on a variety of factors, each piece of Roman glass jewelry is completely unique with its own coloration and design. Not only were glass beads highly popular, but also intricately formed glass cameos and intaglios. These could feature any number of figures or symbols, though most popular were figures of the gods. The draped figure of Venus, the ancient god of love, has been discovered on ancient Roman intaglio, while Athena, the goddess of wisdom and war, and Hercules were also popular figures. Perfume bottle displaying iridescence. 1st–4th century C.E. Dallas Museum of Art Colors of Glass As we all know, glass made using the purest materials is naturally translucent in color. As we have already covered, glass was made using just two ingredients: white silica sand and soda ash. Yet, sometimes the silica sand possessed natural impurities, such as iron or manganese, which gave the resulting glass a tinge of color. The presence of iron resulted in glass with a green hue, while manganese produced pink- and violet-tinged glass. Thus, many ancient glass objects possess some color. Of course, many glassmakers deliberately added minerals during the glassmaking process in order to achieve different hues for decorative effect. We already discussed how materials like lapis lazuli were added to create blue glass that rivaled the beauty of any semiprecious stone. Yet, lapis lazuli was so highly prized it was rarely used to color everyday glass objects by this period. More commonly, cooper was added to achieve a blue hue. Today, three colors are the most sought after in ancient Roman glass: amber, purple and cobalt blue. These colors required complex chemistry and considerable expense to produce, making these pieces even rarer. Iridescence in Roman Glass Perhaps one of the most fascinating physical characteristics of ancient glass, however, is a phenomenon known as iridescence. This effect is not a result of a glassmaker's technique or his materials, but rather simply the passage of time. Over the centuries, the natural weathering of glass causes its thin layers to slightly separate from one another and flake away, leading to a refraction of light between each layer. The result is a prism effect created by bouncing rays of light, producing an iridescent appearance. Iridescence in ancient glass is highly prized. For one, it is a visual indicator that the piece had, in fact, been in the ground for a couple thousand years before it was discovered. In this way, it helps to confirm authenticity. Yet, it also is a breathtaking visual effect. The rainbow-like color changes from every angle, resulting in a piece that is visually interesting as well as culturally significant. Tiffany Studios “Jack in the Pulpit” Vase Lasting Influence of Ancient Glass As antique glass remains highly collectible, it has naturally influenced a number of makers in more modern history. The most famous of these is, perhaps, Louis Comfort Tiffany. Inspired by the fluidity and iridescence of ancient Roman glass, Tiffany produced blown glass, which became known as "Favrile," between 1892 and 1928. This line boasted pieces of superior quality, renowned for their opalescent and iridescent colored finishes. Unlike ancient Roman glass that achieved iridescence through a prism effect, the distinctive coloring of Tiffany's Favrile glass was ingrained in the glass itself. These pieces were so highly popular and visually stunning that Tiffany won the grand prize at the 1900 Paris Exposition for his creation. While Louis Comfort Tiffany ingeniously recreated the aesthetic effects of ancient glass, the forms of ancient glass have also frequently been replicated. Perhaps the most highly replicated example is the legendary Portland Vase, an ancient Roman cameo glass vase that dates to between AD 1 and AD 25. The original Portland Vase was discovered in the tomb of the Roman Emperor Alexander Severus in the 16th century. It was later held by the Barberini family in Italy for more than 150 years, and then came into the possession of Sir William Hamilton, who brought it to England. Since then, the vase has been recreated in glass, porcelain, bronze, and a range of other materials. Ancient glass continues to inspire both makers and collectors, both for its exceptional beauty and its remarkable sense of historic importance. Click here to view our current collection of Roman glass.

NINETEEN FRAGMENTS OF EGYPTIAN FLORAL GLASS INLAYS OR PLAQUES of David Giles Origin and Date:These nineteen fragments of Egyptian Floral glass inlays or plaques are from the Hellenistic or early Ro…

The ancient Egyptians regarded beauty as a sign of holiness. Everything the ancient Egyptians used had a spiritual aspect to it, including cosmetics, which is why cosmetics were an integral part of their daily lives. In tombs, cosmetic palettes were found buried with the deceased as grave goods which further emphasized the idea that cosmetics were not only used for aesthetic purposes but rather magical and religious purposes. Ancient Egyptians wore cosmetics regardless of gender or status, as they believed that cosmetics had magical power. They paid extra attention to eye makeup and they usually lined their eyes with a black galena, kohl (black eyeliner), that was placed in small kohl containers and applied with a wooden stick, creating an almond-shaped eye. The almond-shaped eye resembles the falcon eye of the God Horus. The eye of Horus was believed by the Egyptians to have magical protective powers from the myth of the battle of Horus as revenge for his father Osiris, where it was said he lost his left eye which was later magically restored (Mannichie 34). Therefore, the ancient Egyptians wore the black kohl and used green eye paints under their eye to ward off evil spirits and as a way to keep their eyes protected from eye diseases. The use of eye paints played an important role as well in the afterlife of the ancient Egyptians. “Before presenting himself (the deceased) at the tribunal in the ‘Hall of Justice’ the candidate must purify himself, dress in white garments, make up his eyes and anoint himself. Only then may he enter the realm of Osiris”. The deceased had to line his eyes with kohl in order for him to face the judgment of Osiris and move on to the afterlife. Moreover, ancient Egyptians, especially royalty, wished to preserve their youthfulness and be always depicted in an ideal state in art as part of their divine nature. They used oils such as castor oil, sesame oil and Moringa oil in their daily skin care regimen to fight wrinkles . Their favorite colors were black, green and purple. The two main forms of eye makeup were green eye paint and black kohl. The green eye paint was made of malachite, a green carbonate of copper, and the black kohl was made from a substance called galena, a dark grey ore of lead. The malachite was used in the early predynastic period, whereas galena was introduced in the late predynastic period (Lucas 41). Kohl has two components: laurionite and phosgenite. These two minerals were not readily available in Egypt, which means that the ancient Egyptians must have used wet chemistry in order to synthesize them by filtering of rock salt and natron (Spotts). Facial makeup included stain for cheeks and lips that was produced from red ochre from naturally colored clay that was mined and washed then dried in the sun or burnt to achieve the red pigment (Egyptian Make up). Henna, a naturally occurring plant, was used by the ancient Egyptians to paint their nails and dye their hair. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beauty_and_Co...n_Ancient_Egypt Versione Italiana: http://inovemondi.forumfree.it/?t=65642446#entry531963587

Images of the glittering treasures from Afghanistan in the British Museum's most recent exhibition

Mosaic glass, 1st century B.C.E./C.E. 113.Decorative Plaques with Palmettes-Lotus Motifs 114.Decorative Plaques with Plant Motifs 115.Decorative Plaques with Floral Motifs 116.Decorative Plaques with Geometric Patterns 117.Decorative Plaques with Trefoil Garland Patterns From the Ptolemaic period through the early Imperial Roman period, mosaic glass was made into a variety of decorative panels showing stylized floral patterns or abstract patterns resembling flowers, in addition to the more specific expression of individual human or vegetable forms. These patterns include the following four-petal flower, a combined arrangement of a flower centered circular or square shape with palmetto leaves, lotuses, ivy or grapes and other such plant motifs arranged the central flower (cat. No. 114), layered horizontal arrangements of plants (cat. No. 113), and bundles of three long leaves and two branches tipped with fruit arranged horizontally or in floral garland patterns (cat. No. 117), continuous arrays of abstracted forms such as small flowers, leaves, stars, and waves (cat. Nos. 115,116), and patterns which look like landscape elements. These would have been made to fit the shape of the inlay being applied to furnishings or small boxes, and thus finished in circular, square, polyhedral, vertical and horizontal rectangles, or curved forms. There are many examples where the small individual mosaic units have been combined into complex patterns, for example, the second plaque from the right of the second row from the top of cat. No. 114, is a combination of 16 different mosaic units. The majority of these decorative panel motifs were widely used as decoration in Greek architecture, or in the wall paintings and stucco of the Roman period. Text and image from the website of the Miho Museum.

Hans van Rossum Dutch private collector of Roman Glass (field of interest: 1st- 5th century AD) since about 40 years.Retired from business – Master of Art, graduated with a thesis about the in…

A CARTHAGINIAN ROD-FORMED GLASS HEAD PENDANT 4TH-3RD CENTURY B.C. The cobalt blue head with yellow face, applied ears and lips, tight cobalt blue curls across the forehead and similar on beard, a white spot on central forehead, trailed attachment loop above, beard restored, mounted 1½ in. (3.8 cm.) high CL4200534

AN EGYPTIAN MOSAIC GLASS IBIS INLAY PTOLEMAIC-ROMAN PERIOD, CIRCA 1ST CENTURY B.C.-1ST CENTURY A.D. With translucent dark blue and opaque white body, dark blue and yellow canes, with red ring eye, in opaque green matrix 13/16 in. x ¾ in. (2 cm. x 1.9 cm.) Groppi, 14

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A MESOPOTAMIAN CORE-FORMED GLASS BOTTLE CIRCA MID TO LATE 15TH CENTURY B.C. Opaque cobalt blue in color, with an ovoid body, pointed at the base, a tall cylindrical neck and a rounded outsplayed rim, with applied opaque white, green and yellow marvered threads tooled into patterns, including zigzag on the neck, festoons on the shoulders, zigzag on the body and festoons at the base, with a yellow thread at the rim 5¼ in. (13.3 cm.) high The first glass vessels ever produced, all by the core-form method, were made in northern Mesopotamia in the late 16th and early 15th centuries B.C. Early examples have been found at Nuzi, Tel al-Fakhar, Tel al-Rimah, Tel Brak, Assur, and Nineveh, all sites that were within the control or sphere of influence of the Hurrians. Other early vessels have been found at Atchana in northern Syria, which are thought to be imports from northern Mesopotamia. For a vessel of similar shape and decoration see fig. 17 in Grose, Early Ancient Glass. CNY129201064

LA PRIMA GRANDE MOSTRA, RICCA DI NOVITÀ SCIENTIFICHE, INTERAMENTE DEDICATA ALLA STORIA DI UNA DELLE CITTÀ PIÙ AFFASCINANTI DEL MONDO ANTICO. LE VICEND...

Mosaic glass, 1st century B.C.E./C.E. This rectangular decorative plaque has a dark cobalt ground and shows the profile of a yellow leopard with red spots. The details are expressed in black, red, and green. Text and image from the website of the Miho Museum.

Egyptian, 1300 - 1200 B.C. Glass 2 1/2 x 2 1/8 in. 2003.148 Ancient cultures were sophisticated glass makers. This Egyptian bottle is core-formed. It would have held expensive scented oils owned by wealthy aristocrats.

Mosaic glass, 1st century B.C.E./C.E. These rectangular decorative panels show a combination of two heiroglyphs, the ankh and was-scepters, with the ankh made up of a T-shaped form topped by a circle and symbolizing life. The was-scepters has the head of a dog-like animal with the lower extremities made into a two-pronged scepter, and symbolizes royal authority. The motifs are depicted in red, white, yellow, and cobalt against either a blue or cobalt background. In (a) the ankh is flanked on both sides by was-scepters and the overall area is framed. It appears that other motifs at one point existed outside the framing. (b) - (d) show a repetition of an ankh symbol grasping the was-scepters with both outstretched arms. Decorative bracelets hang from the arms of the ankhs. These decorative panels are made up of mosaic glass units consisting of half of an ankh and the was-scepters which are then paired front to back to make a single motif element and then connected with other elements of the same construct. Text and image from the website of the Miho Museum.