Bust of Socrates (Roman?) Although no one knows the exact date, February 15, 399 B.C.E., is recognized by many as the date when a jury of 500 Athenian citizens over the age of 30, by a vote of 280 to 220, convicted 70 year-old philosopher Socrates (469 B.C.E. – 399 B.C.E.) of the crime of not believing in the Gods recognized by the State, and that Socrates’ teachings had corrupted Athenian youth. Of course Plato, a student of Socrates, witnessed both Socrates' trial as well as his death and wrote that during his defense Socrates related how the Oracle of Delphi had asked him if anyone was wiser than he (Socrates), and how Socrates related: “…neither of us appears to know anything great and good; but he fancies he knows something, although he knows nothing; whereas I, as I do not know anything, so I do not fancy I do. In this trifling particular, then, I appear to be wiser than he, because I do not that I know what I do not know.” (See Plato’s Apology, p. 19). Engraving of Socrates on trial Of course this passage is famously viewed as Socrates' philosophical statement that, “I know that I know nothing;” which appears to mean that the wise man knows that one cannot know anything with absolute certainty, but can feel secure about knowing certain things. In writing of the trial, Plato also related how Socrates discussed his sentence and rhetorically asked why he could not simply live a quiet life and in response, that “Life without investigation is not worth living” or more popularly how, “An unexamined life is not worth living” (Apology, pp. 42-43). Socrates suggested that, “If, therefore, I must award a sentence according to my just deserts, I award this, maintenance in the Prytaneum” (that is, food and wages paid to him by the state for the rest of his days). As we know, that didn’t go over so well and by a vote of 360 to 140, Socrates was sentenced to death by drinking hemlock. Having been told his sentence and in his final statement to the jury, Socrates said: “For my own part I bear no grudge at all against those who condemned me and accused me, although it was not with this kind intention that they did so, but because they thought that they were hurting me; and that is culpable of them. However, I ask them to grant me one favor. When my sons grow up, gentlemen, if you think that they are putting money or anything else before goodness, take your revenge by plaguing them as I plagued you; and if they fancy themselves for no reason, you must scold them just as I scolded you, for neglecting the important things and thinking that they are good for something when they are good for nothing. If you do this, I shall have had justice at your hands, both I myself and my children. Now it is time that we were going, I to die and you to live, but which of us has the happier prospect is unknown to anyone but God” See: Plato's Apology, Crito, and Phaedo In Phaedo, Plato wrote of Socrates's death and how: “Crito made a sign to the servant, who was standing by; and he went out, and having been absent for some time, returned with the jailer carrying the cup of poison. Socrates said: ‘You, my good friend, who are experienced in these matters, shall give me directions how I am to proceed.’ The man answered: ‘You have only to walk about until your legs are heavy, and then to lie down, and the poison will act.’ At the same time he handed the cup to Socrates, who in the easiest and gentlest manner, without the least fear or change of color or feature, looking at the man with all his eyes, Echecrates, as his manner was, took the cup and said: ‘What do you say about making a libation out of this cup to any god?’ ‘May I, or not?’ The man answered: ‘We only prepare, Socrates, just so much as we deem enough.’ ‘I understand,’ he said: ‘but I may and must ask the gods to prosper my journey from this to the other world—even so—and so be it according to my prayer.’ Socrates drinks Hemlock (from 1907 Edwardian engraving) Then raising the cup to his lips, quite readily and cheerfully he drank off the poison. And hitherto most of us had been able to control our sorrow; but now when we saw him drinking, and saw too that he had finished the draught, we could no longer forbear, and in spite of myself my own tears were flowing fast; so that I covered my face and wept, not for him, but at the thought of my own calamity in having to part from such a friend. Nor was I the first; for Crito, when he found himself unable to restrain his tears, had got up, and I followed; and at that moment, Apollodorus, who had been weeping all the time, broke out in a loud and passionate cry which made cowards of us all. Socrates alone retained his calmness: Jacques-Louis David, The Death of Socrates, 1787 ‘What is this strange outcry?’ he said. ‘I sent away the women mainly in order that they might not misbehave in this way, for I have been told that a man should die in peace. Be quiet then, and have patience.’ When we heard his words we were ashamed, and refrained our tears; and he walked about until, as he said, his legs began to fail, and then he lay on his back, according to the directions, and the man who gave him the poison now and then looked at his feet and legs; and after a while he pressed his foot hard, and asked him if he could feel; and he said, ‘No;’ and then his leg, and so upwards and upwards, and showed us that he was cold and stiff. And he felt them himself, and said: ‘When the poison reaches the heart, that will be the end.’ He was beginning to grow cold about the groin, when he uncovered his face, for he had covered himself up, and said—they were his last words—he said: ‘Crito, I owe a cock to Asclepius; will you remember to pay the debt?’ ‘The debt shall be paid,’ said Crito; ‘is there anything else?’ There was no answer to this question; but in a minute or two a movement was heard, and the attendants uncovered him; his eyes were set, and Crito closed his eyes and mouth. Giambettino Cignaroli’s The Death of Socrates (c. 1759?) Such was the end, Echecrates, of our friend; concerning whom I may truly say, that of all the men of his time whom I have known, he was the wisest and justest and best.” (See: Plato’s Phaedo, pp. 173-174). It is interesting to note that when Socrates said that he owed a debt (a cock) to Asclepius and that Asclepius was the Greek god of medicine and healing. Socrates last words would then seem to imply that death is the cure to life. See: Plato's Apology, Crito, and Phaedo

Expedia encargó a algunos artistas la creación de GIF que mostraran cómo se veían 7 maravillas antiguas del mundo en su apogeo y los resultados son fascinantes.

In November, 2008, I took a short trip to Nashville, Tennessee to spend the Thanksgiving holiday with my sister and brother-in-law. They surprised me with a tourist stop at the Nashville Parthenon, which I didn't even know existed at the time! Here are some great pictures of the exterior taken by my brother-in-law during that trip, and a few interior photos taken by my father in 2010. Casual football and soccer games outside the Parthenon As we drove up, I was amazed at how big the Parthenon was! It wasn't until I witnessed this scene that I believed my sister's explanation that the Nashville version really is a built-to-scale replica of the original Parthenon in Greece. Text taken from a plaque located outside the front entrance: The world's only replica of the Parthenon, epitome of Greek culture, was the central building at Tennessee's Centennial Exposition, May 1 through October 31, 1897. The original temple, dedicated to Athena, Greek goddess of wisdom, occupied the most sacred area in ancient Greece, the crest of the Acropolis, a hill overlooking Athens. "The reception of the Centennial--it was the first exposition in the nation to be both an artistic and financial success--and public response to the Parthenon indicated that, although it was made of temporary materials, it should be reconstructed on a permanent basis. Construction was started in 1921, the exterior completed in 1925, but due to the lack of funds, it was not until May 20, 1931, that the Parthenon as it stands today was opened to the public. The type of facade sculpture work at the top of the temple's exterior is called a "frieze." The frieze work on the Parthenon tells the story of Athena's glorious battle with Poseidon. Above front entrance: Here, close-up, you can see Athena on the left, Poseidon on the right; spear against trident! Above the back entrance of the temple, another frieze tells the end of the battle story. Zeus supervises a victory ceremony from his throne, while Poseidon cowers behind him. To his left are the seductive Aphrodite, and low-throned Hades. In the center, Nike, the winged goddess of victory, bestows upon Athena the victor's crown of laurel leaves. Below the frieze are a border of small facades, most displaying Centaurs engaged in their usual drunken pleasures: nymph-wooing, or violence. Athena is supported on the right by several gods. First helmet-wearing Ares, god of war. Artemis with her hunter's bow is trying to get a better look. Hera sits comfortably, accompanied by her symbol, the peacock. Behind her are Hermes (winged cap and sandals, caduceus in hand), and Apollo, holding his lyre. A smaller frieze, displayed in the temple's interior shows the same image. The most impressive of all is the statue of Athena inside the temple. Athena holds the goddess of victory, Nike, in her right hand, a spear and shield to her left. Text taken from a plaque inside the temple: In Greek mythology, Athena is the goddess of wisdom and useful arts, and the protector of cities. Her title, Athena Parthenos, refers to her status as a maiden goddess; the name for the Parthenon is derived from this epithet, and translates into English as "The House of the Maiden." Born from the head of Zeus, King of the gods, Athena inherited much of her father's power and wisdom. Athena's pre-eminent place in the myths depicted on the artwork adorning the Parthenon also reflects the pre-eminent position the city of Athens enjoyed in the mid-fifth century B.C. 1. The Serpent. Thought by some to represent Ericthonios, a legendary, deified kind of early Athens, the snake is thought to symbolize the people of Athens themselves, who, like this creturs of the earth rose "from the soil of Attica." 2. The Shield. Athena's shield protects the snake, indicating her role in defending the people of Athens from harm. 3. The Helmet. The three crests of Athena's helmet are supported by mythological creatures: on the left and right a pegasus, and in the center a sphynx (half woman, half lion)" 4. The Aegis. the armored breast plate Athena wears on her shoulders is said to have magic powers. Given to her by Zeus, the Aegis makes Athena impervious to her enemies' weapons. In the center of the breast plate is the Medusa's head, giver by Perseus in return for Athena's help in killing Medusa. 5. The Sandals. Athena's sandals are decorated with images depicting the slaying of Centaurs. 6. The Frieze. The golden frieze across the front of the marble base depicts the birth of Pandora, whose name means "all gifts." The figures in order from left to right are Helios, Hermes, Hera, Zeus, Nike, Dionysus, the three Horai, Pandora, Hephaistos, Athena, Poseidon, Artemis, Apollo, Ares, Demeter, Hestia, Eros, Aphrodite, and Selene." Upon leaving the Parthenon, my sister and brother-in-law informed me that there was a very different park nearby filled with allusions to Greek mythology and other fairy tales. I never would have imagined this: But there it was: in the center of the park, a huge cartoon covered leviathan! I thought for a moment that I was on an episode of Sesame Street. The entire monster was covered with little mosaic tiles depicting crude, but charming versions of fabulous legendary characters from classic children's literature, popular movies, and old legends. Here are a couple of allusions to Greek Mythology:

Storia dell'impero romano e dell'impero bizantino

Standing a full metre taller than before and without the scaffolding that[...]

Socrates [click on the photos to view larger size] Herodotus puts the following defiant words in the mouth of the Persian King Cyrus, prior to the Achaemenid invasions of Hellas in the early fifth century BCE: "'I have never feared men who have a place set apart in the middle of their city where they lie and deceive each other. . . . .' - and, Herodotus continues - "This threat he uttered against all Hellenes because they have agoras and buy and sell there; for the Persians themselves do not use agoras, nor do they have any." (Herodotos 1.153) The agora of Athens is one of the most famous of these open places where the Athenians bought and sold, and eventually governed themselves. It was the assembly place where the citizens met daily in the open air for all purposes of community life. Among the ruins of the Athenian agora, and by the stream of the Ilissos, it is possible to retrace the footsteps of Socrates at the heart of today’s Athens. The Athenian agora has been systematically excavated since the 1930’s by the American School of Classical Studies. In the 1950’s, the Stoa of Attalos was reconstructed, and this provides the area with a focus, and with a Museum. The rest is only ruins, scattered stones in a garden, but so well studied and preserved, that the life of ancient Athens can be made visible. Socrates walked the agora and engaged the young aristocratic boys in dialogue, founding thereby the philosophy of his great admirer Plato. Plato’s Dialogues are the primary source of our knowledge of Socrates. Plato follows Socrates about in the agora, and describes his death in the State Prison. From other historians we know of Socrates’ having presided over the Boule (Council) of Athens, and of his sitting at the portico of the Stoa of Zeus Eleutherios to discuss philosophy with the aristocratic youths of the city. Ruins of these buildings are still visible in the agora. (see below) The excavations undertaken by the American School of Classical Studies in Athens, have uncovered about thirty acres on the slope northwest of the Acropolis. Material of all periods from the Late Neolithic to modern times has been excavated, shedding light on 5,000 years of Athenian history. My concern here is only with the Athens of the fifth century BCE. Below are photographs of the agora in the 1930’s, as excavations began, and as it looks today. A gradual change from private to public land seems to have occurred during the middle of the sixth century and the first certain public buildings or monuments, such as the Peribolos of the Twelve Gods, were erected in the 520s, during the rule of Peisistratus. He seems to have reorganized the area and established the government’s center there. Great drain of Kleisthenes The Great Drain of Kleisthenes, aligned with the Old Boueluterion, and well constructed of polygonal blocks of limestone, channeled the waters from the hills on the S.W. towards the Eridanos brook to the N. The two branches visible in these photographs were dug in the fourth century BCE or later. At the intersection of the great drains stood a row of dwellings and shops, including the one known as the house of the cobbler Simon. The discovery here of hobnails and of a black glazed cup dating to the third quarter of the fifth century and bearing the name of its owner, Simon, makes it likely that there really was a shop of the cobbler Simon, where, according to Diogenes Laertius, Socrates spent much of his time talking to passers by and engaging them in dialogue. Foundations of the house of the cobbler Simon, where Socrates used to hang out and hail the youths of Athens to interpelate them The creation of the new democracy in 508/7 BCE led to the construction of the Old Bouleuterion (Council House) on the site of the later Metroon, as well as the setting of boundary stones, and the construction of the Stoa Basileus (Royal Stoa). The Persian destruction of 480/79 left the city in ruins, but the buildings in the Agora were repaired and many more were added in the 5th and 4th centuries to accommodate the Athenian democracy at its height. The Stoa Poikile, Tholos, New Bouleuterion, Stoa of Zeus Eleutherios, South Stoa, Mint, and Heliaia (popular tribunal) were all added to the periphery of the great square, as were fountain houses, temples, and shops. Below are two photographs of the ruins of the Tholos. Ruins of the Tholos Model of the New Bouleuterion (below on the left center of the drawing), built in the last quarter of the fifth century BCE to the west (left) of the original building which was later rebuilt as the Metroon to house the shrine of the Mother of the Gods and the public archives. The round building is the Tholos. A drawing of the interior of the Tholos, sometimes called Skias or sunshade from the shape of its roof. Here, as Aristotle records, the fifty Prytaneis dined daily at the public expense and offered sacrifice before their deliberations. The Prytaneis were the executives of the Boule, or the City's Council, and presided over the Bouleterion, the Council House, of ancient Athens, and therefore, the Tholos was the effective headquarters of Athenian government. A small kitchen on the north side made it possible for those presiding in the Bouleterion to remain on duty and dine while working. Socrates would have eaten here when he presided in 406-05 BCE. The Peribolos of the Twelve Gods Photo of the Peribolos of the Twelve Gods and drawing of the Peribolos (Altar) in a restored condition, the center from which distances were measured, established in 522-21 BCE, and destroyed by the Persians in 480-79 BCE, and rebuilt in the latter part of Socrates’ lifetime. The Twelve were not synonymous with the twelve Olympian gods but represent a local Athenian grouping. The remains of this altar are now partly hidden by a wall and by the railway tracks beyond it. Monument to the Eponymous Heroes of Athens Above is a drawing of the monument to the Eponymous Heroes as they were re-established in the fourth century, and, below, a photo of the ruins of the monument today. Only traces of the fifth century monument are now recognizable under the foundations of the Hellenistic ‘Middle Stoa.’ The eponymous heroes were the Athenians known of old who gave their names to the ten official divisions of the Athenian citizenry, the ten tribes (phylai) into which the statesman Kleisthenes re-organized the citizens of Athens in 508-7 BCE. The Stoa of Zeus Eleutherios A photo of the ruins of the front portico of the Stoa of Zeus Eleutherios and (right) a drawing of the model of the Stoa, which is shown left of center in foreground. The Stoa was a public arcade, like a Mall. The portico of this Stoa, which had two projecting wings, was built by unknown architects, c. 430 BCE, to honor Zeus as savior of the Athenians from the Persians. Under its colonnade, citizens transacted their private business. Socrates is known to have discussed philosophy here with the aristocratic youths of Athens. The State Prison of Athens, where Socrates died, as described in Plato's dialogues, the Apology and the Phaedo: The prison in a drawing of its restored aspect shows the northeast wing as a guard tower.The view of these ruins from the north have been identified as remains of the State Prison in which Socrates spent his last days. Ruins of the prison of Athens where Socrates was executed The Ilissos River in downtown Athens The Ilissos Area is probably the only spot where the ancient river is still visible in Athens, since its course has been interfered with and its waters have largely vanished underground. But this small wooded area at the foot of the Olympieion (Temple to Olympian Zeus, barely visible in some of the photos) may well be the location described by Plato at the beginning of his dialogue Phaedrus. In the dialogue, Phaedrus points to a house near the temple of Olympian Zeus, and Socrates then suggests they “turn aside here along the Ilissus. Then we can sit down in peace wherever we feel inclined.” View of the Ilissos river bed When Phaedrus and Socrates find a place for rest, Socrates describes the spot in detail: “SOCRATES: It is indeed a lovely spot for a rest. This plane tree is very tall and spreading, and the agnus-castus [a purple-flowered bush, native of the Mediterranean region] splendidly high and shady, in full bloom too, filling the neighborhood with the finest possible fragrance. And the spring which runs under the plane, how beautifully cool its water is to the feet. . . . See too how wonderfully delicate and sweet the air is, throbbing in response to the shrill chorus of the cicadas – the very voice of summer. But the most exquisite thing of all is the way the grass slopes gently upward to provide perfect comfort for the head as one lies at length. Really, my dear Phaedrus, a visitor could not possibly have found a better guide than you. PHAEDRUS: What a very strange person you are, Socrates. So far from being like a native, you resemble, in your own phrase, a visitor being shown the sights by a guide. This comes of your never going out beyond the frontiers of Attica or even, as far as I can see, outside the actual walls of the city. SOCRATES: Forgive me, my dear friend. I am, you see, a lover of learning. Now the people in the city have something to teach me, but the fields and trees won’t teach me anything.” The bed of the Ilissos river in Athens with the ruins of the Olympieion above the hill The slope of the Ilissos