Navegación aérea-Unidades de medida, ahora vamos a ver cómo medimos la distancia entre ambos puntos; para ello nos ayudaremos de nuevo con el Plotter.
Es un tipo de radioayuda a la navegación que se utiliza para seguir en vuelo una ruta preestablecida. Generalmente se compone de una estación trasmisora de VOR en superficie. La antena VOR de la estación emite dos señales; una se emite en todas las direcciones (omnidireccional) y la otra es giratoria. La primera señal se expande y contrae 30 veces por segundo y la segunda da vueltas a 30 revoluciones por segundo, en sentido horario. Esta última (la giratoria) tiene dos lados, uno positivo y otro negativo. La señal emitida en todas las direcciones, o señal de referencia, está sincronizada para que transmita en el mismo instante en que el haz giratorio atraviesa el Norte magnético. Estos haces giratorios y la señal de referencia dan como resultado una medición de radiales. Su receptor omnidireccional capta la señal de referencia. Algún tiempo después capta el punto máximo de la señal giratoria positiva. Mide electrónicamente la diferencia de tiempo entre una y otra y la expresa en grados y su marcación magnética con respecto a la estación. Supongamos, por ejemplo, que la señal giratoria tardara 1 minuto en dar una vuelta (en realidad tarda 1/30 de segundo). Usted recibe la señal de referencia (emitida en todas las direcciones) y 45 segundos después, la giratoria. Esto quiere decir que su posición es 45/60 ó ¾ partes de recorrido giratorio. (Tres cuartas partes de 360° es 270°, por lo tanto usted se encuentra en el radial 270). El receptor omnidireccional efectúa estos cálculos de modo más rápido y preciso. Frecuencia VOR. El VOR funciona en una banda de frecuencia (VHF) entre los 108,0 MHz y los 117,95 MHz, utiliza frecuencias con decimales pares desde 108,0 a 112,0 (108,2 – 108,4 – 109,0 – 110,0 etc.). Las frecuencias con decimales impares dentro de este rango, corresponden a frecuencias ILS (108,1 – 108,3 – 109,1 – 110,1 etc.). Transmisiones orales. La mayoría de los VOR están equipados con medios para transmisiones por voz. Los VOR que no tienen esta capacidad se reconocen en los documentos AIP porque tienen la frecuencia subrayada. En vista de que una gran parte de las frecuencias disponibles en el tablero de control VOR pueden traslapar la banda de frecuencias de comunicaciones VHF, se puede usar el receptor VOR como receptor de comunicaciones VHF. Exactitud. La precisión de alineación de ruta del VOR es excelente, ya que generalmente es de + 1º, pero no mayor de 2.5º Identificación. La única forma de identificar el VOR es por su código de identificación Morse o por la señal automática identificadora de voz grabada. La frecuencia del VOR se puede emplear como información ATIS para el aeropuerto. Clasificación de VOR. Según la garantía de emisión de las estaciones VOR se clasifican en: TVOR ó VOR Terminal, que está garantizado para trabajar con precisión a menos de 25 millas de distancia y por debajo de 12.000 pies (3600 metros). Estos tipos de VOR son usados principalmente para la navegación de entrada a aeropuertos, pero no para navegación de ruta. LVOR o VOR de baja cota, que está garantizado su uso en 40 millas y por debajo de 18.000 pies (5400 metros). HVOR o VOR de alta cota, estando garantizado su uso hasta 130 millas y hasta 45.000 pies (13500 metros). Arquitectura del VOR abordo: Nota: Todas las informaciones aquí contenidas tienen únicamente carácter informativo. CARLOS DELGADO "PERCEVAL" +584144676112 También puedes visitarme a través de: Facebook: Vuelo Instrumental Blogger: El vuelo por Instrumentos Twitter: @vueloIFR Instagram: @vueloIFR Ayuda a mantener este blog, donando con paypal o con mercado pago. Puedes adquirir el vuelo por instrumentos dando clic a continuación. CLIK PARA OBTENER EL VUELO POR INSTRUMENTOS
Blog sobre el vuelo por instrumentos y vuelo IFR
If you depend on a map and compass for wilderness navigation you should learn about declination. This article teaches you how to compensate for magnetic declination while traversing the wild.
Blog sobre el vuelo por instrumentos y vuelo IFR
Flight instruments enable an airplane to be operated with maximum performance and enhanced safety, especially when flying long distances. The pilots need to understand how they operate.
If you depend on a map and compass for wilderness navigation you should learn about declination. This article teaches you how to compensate for magnetic declination while traversing the wild.
Las funciones principales del indicador de viraje y ladeo son las de suministrar una fuente alterna de control de ladeo y para indicar la necesidad de una compensación de guiñada. Una desviación del ancho de una aguja en el indicador de viraje nos prepara para un viraje de 360º en dos minutos (3º/segundos) en un indicador de dos minutos, o en cuatro minutos (1½º/segundo) en un indicador de cuatro minutos. NOTA: Un viraje de régimen normal es de 3º por segundo y un medio viraje de régimen normal es de 1½º por segundo. Está constituido por un giróscopo, cuyo rotor es accionado por el sistema de vacío (giro succión) o eléctricamente. El giróscopo se monta por lo general en un ángulo de 30º, de forma semirrígida, lo cual le permite girar libremente sobre los ejes lateral y longitudinal, pero teniendo restringido el giro alrededor del eje vertical. Un muelle acoplado al giróscopo mantiene a este vertical cuando no se le aplica ninguna fuerza defectiva. En algunas ocasiones, este muelle es ajustable para permitir la calibración del instrumento para una determinada tasa de giro. Adicionalmente, un mecanismo de amortiguación impide las oscilaciones excesivas del indicador. Resbale o Deslizamiento. Si la bola cae hacia el lado del viraje, el avión está resbalando. La fuerza de la gravedad es mayor que la fuerza centrífuga. El régimen de viraje es demasiado bajo para la inclinación dada, o la inclinación es excesiva para ese régimen. Para corregir un resbale, hay que aumentar el régimen de viraje (más presión sobre el pedal del lado del viraje) o disminuir el ángulo de alabeo (menos deflexión en los alerones), o ambas cosas. Derrape. Si la bola se mueve hacia el lado contrario al viraje, el avión está derrapando. La fuerza centrífuga es mayor que la gravedad. El régimen de viraje es demasiado alto para el alabeo dado, o el alabeo es insuficiente para ese régimen. Para corregir un derrape, se debe disminuir el régimen de viraje (menos presión sobre el pedal del lado del viraje) o aumentar el ángulo de alabeo (más deflexión en los alerones), o ambas cosas. Es importante para el piloto, comprender que la bola debe mantenerse centrada en todo momento, tanto en los giros como en vuelo recto y nivelado, la técnica es la comunmente llamada "PISAR LA BOLA" salvo que se desee realizar un resbale intencionado. Si la bola no está centrada, el avión no está volando eficientemente. Ver video de Viraje y Ladeo Preparado por: Carlos Delgado "Perceval" [email protected] Nota: Todas las informaciones aquí contenidas tienen únicamente carácter informativo. CARLOS DELGADO "PERCEVAL" 00584262334202 También puedes visitarme a través de: Facebook: Vuelo Instrumental Blogger: El vuelo por Instrumentos Twitter: @vueloIFR Instagram: @vueloIFR Ayuda a mantener este blog, donando con mercado pago: con paypal . Puedes adquirir el vuelo por instrumentos dando clic a continuación. http://elvueloporinstrumentos.blogspot.com/2015/05/comprar-manual.html Donar 50 Bs
If you depend on a map and compass for wilderness navigation you should learn about declination. This article teaches you how to compensate for magnetic declination while traversing the wild.
If you depend on a map and compass for wilderness navigation you should learn about declination. This article teaches you how to compensate for magnetic declination while traversing the wild.
Introduction The Instrument Landing System (ILS) is an internationally normalized system for navigation of aircrafts upon the final approach for landing. It was accepted as a standard system by the ICAO, (International Civil Aviation Organization) in 1947. Since the technical specifications of this system are worldwide prevalent, an aircraft equipped with a board system like the ILS, will reliably cooperate with an ILS ground system on every airport where such system is installed. The ILS system is nowadays the primary system for instrumental approach for category I.-III-A conditions of operation minimums and it provides the horizontal as well as the vertical guidance necessary for an accurate landing approach in IFR (Instrument Flight Rules) conditions, thus in conditions of limited or reduced visibility.The accurate landing approach is a procedure of permitted descent with the use of navigational equipment coaxial with the trajectory and given information about the angle of descent. The equipment that provides a pilot instant information about the distance to the point of reach is not a part of the ILS system and therefore is for the discontinuous indication used a set of two or three marker beacons directly integrated into the system. The system of marker beacons can however be complemented for a continuous measurement of distances with the DME system (Distance measuring equipment), while the ground part of this UKV distance meter is located co-operatively with the descent beacon that forms the glide slope. It can also be supplemented with a VOR system by which means the integrated navigational-landing complex ILS/VOR/DME is formed. Analysis Categories of operation minimums. Category I A minimal height of resolution at 200 ft (60,96 m), whereas the decision height represents an altitude at which the pilot decides upon the visual contact with the runway if he’ll either finish the landing maneuver, or he’ll abort and repeat it. The visibility of the runway is at the minimum 1800 ft (548,64 m) The plane has to be equipped apart from the devices for flying in IFR (Instrument Flight Rules) conditions also with the ILS system and a marker beacon receiver. Category II A minimal decision height at 100 ft (30,48 m) The visibility of the runway is at the minimum 1200 ft (365,76 m) The plane has to be equipped with a radio altimeter or an inner marker receiver, an autopilot link, a raindrops remover and also a system for the automatic draught control of the engine can be required. The crew consists of two pilots. Category III A A minimal decision height lower than 100 ft (30,48 m) The visibility of the runway is at the minimum 700 ft (213,36 m) The aircraft has to be equipped with an autopilot with a passive malfunction monitor or a HUD (Head-up display). Category III B A minimal decision height lower than 50 ft (15,24 m) The visibility of the runway is at the minimum 150 ft (45,72 m) A device for alteration of a rolling speed to travel speed. Category III C Zero visibility Basic elements of the ILS system and THEIR brief description The ILS system consists of four subsystems: VHF localizer transmitter UHF glide slope transmitter marker beacons approach lighting system Ground equipment Localizer One of the main components of the ILS system is the localizer which handles the guidance in the horizontal plane. The localizer is an antenna system comprised of a VHF transmitter which uses the same frequency range as a VOR transmitter (108,10 ÷ 111,95 MHz), however the frequencies of the localizer are only placed on odd decimals, with a channel separation of 50 kHz. The trasmitter, or antenna, is in the axis of the runway on it’s other end, opposite to the direction of approach. A backcourse localizer is also used on some ILS systems. The backcourse is intended for landing purposes and it’s secured with a 75 MHz marker beacon or a NDB (Non Directional Beacon) located 3÷5 nm (nautical miles), or 5,556÷9,26 km before the beginning of the runway. The course is periodically checked to ensure that the aircraft lies in the given tolerance The transmitted signal: The localizer, or VHF course marker, emits two directional radiation patterns. One comprises of a bearing amplitude-modulated wave with a harmonic signal frequency of 150 Hz and the other one with the same bearing amplitude-modulated wave with a harmonic signal frequency of 90 Hz. These two directional radiation patterns do intersect and thus create a course plane, or a horizontal axis of approach, which basically represents an elongation of the runway’s axis For an observer – a pilot, who is situated on the “approaching” side of the runway (therefore in front of the LLZ antenna system) predominates a modulation of 150 Hz on the right side of the course plane and 90 Hz on the left. The intersection of these two regions determines the on-track signal. The width of the navigational ray can span from 3° to 6°, however mostly 5° are used. The ray is set to secure a signal approximately 700 ft (213, 36 m) wide on the borderline of the runway. The width of the ray magnifies, so at a distance of 10 nm (18,52 km) from the transmitter is the ray about 1 nm (1,852 km) wide. The range of the localizer can be even 18 nm (33,336 km) in the 10° field from the center of the ray (on-track signal) and 10 nm (18,52km) in the field 10°÷35° from the center of the ray, because the main part of the signal is coaxial with the middle of the runway. The localizer is identified by an audio signal added to the navigational signal. The audio signal consists of letter „I“, following with a two-letter addition, for example: „I-OW“. UHF descent beacon – glide slope The transmitted signal: The glide slope, or angle of the descent plane provides the vertical guidance for the pilot during an approach. It’s created by a ground UHF transmitter containing an antenna system operating in the range of 329,30÷335.00 MHz, with a channel separation of 50 kHz. The transmitter is located 750÷1250 ft (228,6÷381 m) from the beginning of the runway and 400÷600 ft (121,92÷182,88 m) from it’s axis. The observed tolerance is ±0,5°. The UHF glide slope is paired with the corresponding frequency of the VHF localizer. Like the signal of the localizer, so does the signal of the glide slope consist of two intersected radiation patterns, modulated at 90 and 150 Hz. However unlike the localizer, these signals are arranged on top of each other and emitted along the path of approach, as you can see in Fig. The thickness of the overlaping field is 0,7° over as well as under the optimal glide slope. The signal of the glide slope can be set in the range of 2°÷4,5° over the horizontal plane of approach. Typically it’s a value of 2,5°÷3°, depending of the obstacles along the corridor of approach and the runway’s inclination. False signals can be generated along the glide slope. It’s happening in multiples of the angle that‘s formed by the glide slope and the horizontal plane. The first case arises at approximately 6° over the horizontal plane. These false signals are inversive, which means that the directions to climb or descend will be swapped. A false signal at 9° will be oriented the same as the real glide slope. There are no false signals under the glide slope. Localizer receiver The signal is received on board of an aircraft by an onboard localizer receiver. A simplified block scheme of the onboard receiver of the localizer’s signals is displayed in Fig. The localizer receiver and the VOR receiver form a single unit. The signal of the localizer launches the vertical indicator called the track bar (TB). Provided that the final approach does occur from south to north, an aircraft flying westward from the runway’s axis is situated in an area modulated at 90 Hz, therefore the track bar is deflected to the right side. On the contrary, if the plane’s positioned east from the runway’s axis, the 150 Hz modulated signal causes the track bar to lean out to the right side. In the area of intersection, both signals affect the track bar, which causes to a certain extent a deflection in the direction of the stronger signal. Thus if an aircraft flies roughly in the axis of approach leaned out partially to the right, the track bar is going to deflect a bit to the left. This indicates a necessary correction to the left. In the point where both signals 90 Hz and 150 Hz have the same intensity, the track bar is in the middle. Meaning that the plane is located exactly in the approach axis When the track bar is used in conjunction with a VOR, a lean out of 10° to one or the other side from the signal causes a full deflection of the indicator. If the same pointer is used as an indicator of the ILS localizer, a full deflection will be induced by a 2,5° diversion from the center of the localizer’s beam. Therefore the sensitivity of the TB is roughly four times greater in the function as an indicator of the localizer as at the indication of information from the VOR. In case that a red NAV bat appears in the upper right section of the onboard ILS indicator , it represents that the signal is far too weak or out of the receiver’s reach and for that reason the pointer’s deflection cannot be considered to be accurate. The vertical pointer will return to the neutral position, meaning to the center of the indicator. A momentary display of the NAV bat, short deviations of the TB, or both instances happening at once can occur in the case that an aircraft flies between the receiver’s antenna and the transmitter, or some other obstacle gets into their way. glide slope receiver The glide slope’s signal is on board of a plane received by means of a UHF antenna. In modern avionics are the controls for this receiver combined with the VOR’s controls, so the correct frequency of the glide slope beacon is tuned in automatically at the instant when the localizer’s frequency is selected. The glide slope’s signal puts the horizontal pointer of the glide slope into operation which intersects the TB, see and . This indicator has its own GS bat which lights up whenever the glide slope beacon’s signal is too weak or the onboard receiver, hence the whole aircraft is out of the signal’s reach . The onboard indicator of the ILS system can be used by a pilot to determine the exact position because it provides vertical as well as horizontal guiding. The case in portrays both indicators in the middle, which means that the aircraft is located in the point of intersection of the course plane (horizontal) and the glide slope. The event pictured in indicates that the pilot must descent and correct the flight course to the left in order to aquire the correct course and glide slope level. The case shows a necessity to ascend and adjust the flight course to the right. With a 1,4° overlapping of the beams is the area around 1500 ft (457,2 m) wide at a distance of 10 NM (18,52 km), 150 ft (45,72 m) at a distance of 1 NM (1,852 km), and less than one foot (0,3 m) at the instant of touch down. The apparent sensitivity of the instrument increases as the aircraft closes in to the runway. The pilot has to watch the indicator with attention so that he can keep an overlap of both needles of the pointer in the middle of the indicator. Thereby he’ll achieve a precise homing all the way to the touch down.
In this comprehensive step-by-step guide, we show you exactly how to build a home flight simulator cockpit in 2024!
