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Built from Bizzarrini parts, the Manta was one of Giorgetto Giugiaro's first independent designs as an independent consultant. He used it to promote and launch ItalDesign at the 1968 Turin Motor Show.  The Manta is remarkable as it was built up from an ex-Le Mans racer and it is one of the first cars the world to use a triple seat arrangement. Inside the cockpit is an odd layout that seats the driver in the middle of the interior with a passenger on either side. The idea was copied from the Pininfarina designed Ferrari 365 P Speciale of 1966 and it was later, more popularly revived with the mighty McLaren F1. The design features a continuous line from nose to roof and again from roof to tail. It has a radical 15-degree rake to the windscreen and a large surface area of glass that stretches beyond the B-pillar, allowing view of the intake trumpets. Giugiaro inserted two groups of five transverse louvers, a painted in a dramatic contrast in color. In the back was a split bumper that folded over onto the tail. At the bottom, in-between the front and rear wheels, are brushed aluminum rocker panels, with its industrial 'drilled' motif. The car is powered by a 5359cc overhead valve Chevrolet V8 engine with four Weber 45 DCOE carburetors. It produces an estimated 400 hp at 5400 rpm. There is a 5-speed ZF manual gearbox and 4-wheel servo-assisted disc brakes with an inboard configuration at the rear. In October of 1982, Ulf Larsson of Switzerland acquired it for his collection. In 1988, the Manta was shipped to Italy to take part in Italdesign's 20th anniversary celebration and repainted silver in honor of the special occasion. In 1998, the Manta returned to Italy for Ital Design's 30th anniversary and a special display at the Turin Motor Show. A few years later, Texas collector Alfredo Brener purchased the car and commissioned a complete restoration to bring it back to its original 1968 Turin Motor Show configuration. (supercars.net & conceptcarz.com) In October of 1982, Ulf Larsson of Switzerland acquired it for his collection. In 1988, the Manta was shipped to Italy to take part in Ital Design's 20th anniversary celebration and repainted silver in honor of the special occasion. (Photos from conceptcarz.com, autowp.ru, blog.hemmings.com,  supercarsnet.com, carstyling.ru, mycarquest.com, beta.club.sohu.com,  img.blog.163.com & classic-cars-talks.blogspot.ca)

Interior design plays an essential element when it comes to interior design shop. Creating fun and stylish showrooms, the design must be decorative while still maintaining a professional workflow for the staff. That’s why Boca do Lobo Blog has selected some incredible showrooms designs for you. Arteios - Baden-Baden Selecting an excellent combination of design furniture pieces from the most distinguished brands of the World Design furniture, ARTEIOS concept store sparkles like a star on the streets of Baden-Baden. Since the inauguration, it has blown many minds away by hosting many architects and top interior designers from all around the world, willing to be inspired by the immersion in this glimmering environment and having a solid idea of the statement, magic, and strength that each piece can draw to an interior set. In order to help the visitors with their choice, the area is full of a broad range of luxury furniture pieces and lighting from multiple labels. Despite the concept and the luxury involved, the pieces can match in with every character and every style. ADDRESS Sophienstr. 17 · D-76530 Baden-Baden https://www.arteios.com/ Henge - Istanbul Henge mono-brand concept store gave the start to a new experience in the wonderful Istanbul, breathing the traditional fragrances of the city and fulfilling it with its style and design. Henge’s journey throughout several worlds and cultures goes forward on its path. ADDRESS E.S. Dekorasyon Tic.Ltd.Sti. Firuzaga Mah. Bogazkesen Cad. No.30A Tophane – 34433 – Beyoglu – Istanbul, Turkey www.henge07.com Kris Turnbull Showroom - Belfast Honored as one of the leading interior design houses in the nation, Kris Turnbull Showroom is a high-end architectural and luxury interior design studio headquartered in Belfast, Northern Ireland. Inspired by the hunt for ideal and absolute care to detail; they are a team of extremely creative and dedicated designers producing extraordinary houses. Practicing in residential design projects for single clients and business developers; they are operating in the finest homes around the world from high-end luxury interior design projects in London to extravagant private habitations in the Middle East. ADDRESS 135 Lisburn Road, Belfast, BT9 7AG, Northern Ireland http://www.kristurnbull.com/ Spotti Milano – Italy For the past thirty years, Spotti Milano has been picking and showcasing the best interior design answers for a full and tailored project. They create the perfect place for each client, designing unique living and working surroundings. In Spotti Milano they select furniture and accessories of the best Italian and international luxury brands and recommend how to make your home special, looking for the best solutions to create a space that matches your character. ADDRESS Viale Piave, 27 Milano, 20129 Consort – Los Angeles A shop by the design firm of the same name, Consort offers the unique modern-yet-glam style that has earned designers Mat Sanders and Brandon Quattrone a star-studded client list to a wider public. In the lively, creatively curated area, luxe furnishings and fine art share space with unconventional accessories and loads of colors. ADDRESS 6918 Melrose Avenue, Los Angeles, CA 90038 https://www.consort-design.com/ Covet London, UK Curated Design is the motto for this project, a people’s experience that ultimately is based on the relationship between the client and the brands to make sure that the art of engagement was not lost. In an almost digital world where budgets, luxury, products’ quality and, of course, deadlines set the rules for this new way of collaboration with the design. ADDRESS 1 Regal House, Lensbury Avenue in Fulham http://www.covethouse.eu/ Cassina Showroom - New York Patricia Urquiola has renewed Cassina’s showroom in Midtown Manhattan for her first main project since entering the Italian furniture brand as art director. The restored concept store was supposedly encouraged by Cassina’s own story, which “reflects the work of the great architectural masters of Modernism”. ADDRESS 151 Wooster Street - Zip Ny10012 - New York https://www.cassina.com/ Corso Europa – Italy The extensive brand selection of Corso Europa is intended for giving inspirations and resolutions suitable for any requirement, for a particular and single style. It is unlikely to get wrong while choosing among various products and brands that are real reference points in the design history of Italian and international furnishing. ADDRESS Corso Europa 2 20122, Milano https://www.corso-europa.com/en/ Luminaire Lab – Miami Luminaire Lab is a house to play, an innovative area and it is clearly not a typical showroom. Here you will discover diverse layers of colors, original designs, and contemporary objects. It is intended to be a variety of the traditional showroom and bring singleness to the table of interior design in Miami Design District. ADDRESS 3901 NE 2nd Ave Miami, FL 33137 https://www.luminaire.com/ Scultura & Design – Italy The global interior design firm in the heart of Milano. Shading the lines within art and design, where creativity defeats geographic borders, where taste, care, and assistance are uniquely Italian, Scultura & Design produces timeless designs of your dreams. The design factory has a tradition of several thriving episodes: a list of bespoke projects exquisitely conceived and seamlessly performed to deliver to every customer exceptional assistance, top quality outcomes, and endless inventiveness. ADDRESS Scultura & Design via Hoepli 20121 Milano, Italy http://www.sculturaedesign.com/ B&B Italia Showroom - Tel Aviv Designed by Pitsou Kedem Architects, the design gave new life to a deserted and neglected construction in the Tel Aviv harbor area, and conceived, around one of the accurate furniture collections in the world of design, a space that is both robust and yet limited at one and the same time. ADDRESS 3 HaTa'arucha Street http://www.bebitalia.com/ Luxury Living Group Showroom - LA, USA The almost 10,000-square-foot space on Los Angeles’s Beverly Boulevard contains exquisitely orchestrated rooms showcasing designs from all of the luxury brands, including Fendi Casa, Bentley Home, and Trussardi Casa. ADDRESS West Hollywood Design District 8833, Beverly Boulevard http://www.luxurylivinggroup.com/ Minotti Showroom - Italy The Minotti’s Milan concept store is the most visible display of how the modern variations can combine seamlessly with pieces from the past collections, in a sequence of sophisticated shades that carry the brand’s sophisticated and different lifestyle. ADDRESS Via Indipendenza, 152 20821, Meda - Italy https://www.minotti.com Touched Interiors – Manchester The award-winning Touched Interiors was established to "bring visionary dream designs to reality." Touched Interiors wants to create perfection not just for the interior design clients but for anyone who is enthusiastic about interiors. The team explored the World to bring to you not just furniture but pieces of sculptural art crafted by master artisans. ADDRESS 26 Blackfriars Street. Manchester. Lancashire. M3 5JS. UK https://www.touchedinteriors.co.uk/ Don´t miss the chance to subscribe our newsletter in order to receive our latest news and articles. | The most stylish and sophisticated contemporary home inspirations are here! Showcasing inspirational interiors and offering its readers a wealth of creative ideas and design expertise to draw upon. A place where design and decoration meet ideas and inspiration.

SUMÁRIO INTRODUÇÃO CAPÍTULO 1 Sobre a lei de direito autoral 1.1 Do objeto da Lei de Direitos Autorais 1.2 Da autoria de obras intelectuais 1.3 Dos parâmetros da Lei Autoral CAPÍTULO 2 Dos direitos morais e patrimoniais do autor 2.1 Dos direitos morais do autor 2.1.1 Duração e transferência dos direitos morais 2.2 Dos direitos patrimoniais do autor 2.2.1 Duração e transferência dos direitos patrimoniais 2.3 Limites aos direitos do autor CAPÍTULO 3 Dos direitos conexos e sanções 3.1 Dos titulares dos direitos conexos 3.2 Da proteção aos direitos conexos 3.3 Da duração dos direitos conexos 3.4 Das infrações à Lei Autoral CAPÍTULO 4 Autenticidade formal e material na obra intelectual 4.1 Por um conceito de obra de arte 4.2 Das mutações na obra de arte 4.3 O falso na arte CAPÍTULO 5 Da prova de autenticidade de obra intelectual 5.1 A importância do registro de criações e seus efeitos 5.2 Do registro de marcas e patentes 5.3 Do registro de obras intelectuais na Lei de Direitos Autorais 5.4 Dos meios de prova em direito CONSIDERAÇÕES FINAIS REFERÊNCIAS INTRODUÇÃO Infelizmente ao se consultar um simples encarte de CD de música [mesmo não pirateado] encontra-se grafado apenas o título da composição e seu intérprete atual. Pouco se encontra quem tenha cumprido seu dever moral, no mínimo, de declinar o nome do feliz autor que pariu a emoção composta da bem dita letra e música. Resultando disso, além da confusão entre obra autêntica, inédita, derivada e original, uma maior ignorância popular e fraude ao direito autoral. Refrescando a memória, só para se ter idéia da falha imperdoável, quando algum desavisado lê ou ouve o trecho “ainda que eu falasse as línguas dos homens e dos anjos...” e é questionado sobre o autor da composição, a resposta imediata é que pertence a ex-banda de rock brasiliense, Legião Urbana. Enquanto outros atribuirão ao poeta português Luís de Camões. Ao passo que poucos dirão que embora ambas interpretações sejam derivadas e autênticas [a seu modo, tempo e estilo], em verdade, ao que se tem notícia, o texto original encontra-se na Bíblia¹, em I Coríntios 13, que é a primeira Carta [Epístola] que São Paulo escreveu aos moradores da cidade de Corinto, na Grécia. Certamente existem artistas intérpretes que executam tão bem seu ofício, que emprestam tão peculiar talento no desempenho de determinado trabalho que, por vezes, conseguem transmitir uma visão até mais ampla, tocante e contagiante que os autores dessas obras interpretadas. Certamente existem artistas intérpretes tão bons que atraem mais público e vendem mais que os autores das obras interpretadas. Certamente, tudo isso é verdade. Mas, certamente também é verdade que nada justifica o imperdoável “esquecimento” do autor pelo artista intérprete, editor, comunicador, utilizador, executante, produtor fonográfico ou empresa de radiodifusão ou transmissão por qualquer meio, até porque nenhum deles existiria se não existisse, antes de tudo, o autor que criou a obra. _____________________ 1 BÍBLIA SAGRADA. 45 ed. São Paulo: Editora Ave Maria, 1984, p. 1477. Em que pese à confusão e descaso ainda reinantes, adianta-se que a Lei nº 9.610, que regula o Direito Autoral e que completou mais de  dez anos, em seu art. 5º traz que obra inédita é aquela que não foi publicada; que obra originária é a criação primígena; que obra derivada é a que, constituindo criação intelectual nova, resulta da transformação de obra originária; que reprodução é cópia permitida, e contrafação é reprodução não autorizada, ou seja, é crime!       Quanto ao conceito de obra inédita, reprodução e contrafação, uma simples leitura e reflexão da lei provavelmente espancam dúvidas sobre suas definições. No entanto, quanto ao conceito de obra originária, derivada e autêntica não se têm a mesma sorte até porque não consta na lei qualquer menção a obra autêntica.     Sem dúvida, nesta breve exposição não se busca tecer muitas considerações a respeito da óbvia importância que tem a certificação de autenticidade de obras intelectuais, inclusive para efeito jurídico, credibilidade e estabilidade das instituições sociais; ou, em sentido contrário, adentrar muitos comentários sobre as nocivas conseqüências que geram as constatações de falsidade de documentos que certificam a autenticidade de obras intelectuais para efeito do patrimônio cultural e artístico do país.  As prováveis conceituações de autenticidade, obra intelectual autêntica e seus efeitos - necessidades doutrinárias nascidas da realidade que poderão subsidiar os aplicadores do direito nessa área - são apenas as desculpas mais simples que ensejaram este trabalho e que serão analisadas, inclusive, sob a ótica do direito e da arte. Outras questões, como a da importância do registro subjetivo de obras intelectuais - dispensável pela lei e crucial na vida prática, principalmente post mortem do criador da obra -, bem como, da documentação de cautela e dos meios de prova, da defesa da integridade e autoria de obra caída em domínio público, são analisadas não apenas sob a ótica dos dispositivos legais atinentes, mas também por meio de exemplos clássicos que a história fornece.             De toda sorte, restou, ao final, a evidente certeza de que o direito não ajuda aqueles que dormem ou negligenciam em sua defesa, especialmente quando o assunto é autenticidade e prova de autoria de obra intelectual, depois que o autor morre; o que equivale afirmar que não basta dizer que a obra é autêntica, é preciso provar sua autenticidade, e o que inexiste não pode ser confirmado, cabendo àquele que afirma a autenticidade, e não ao que nega, o ônus da prova da alegada autoria e veracidade da obra - se puder - sem depender de prova testemunhal, tratada por sábios juristas como a prostituta das provas, face à temerosa fragilidade de sustentação. CAPÍTULO 1 SOBRE A LEI DE DIREITO AUTORAL 1.1 DO OBJETO DA LEI DE DIREITOS AUTORAIS            A Lei de Direitos Autorais nº 9.610 de 19.02.98 (LDA), anexa, que consolida a legislação sobre direitos autorais e direitos que lhe são conexos, define os direitos autorais como bens jurídicos móveis e informa que os negócios jurídicos decorrentes do exercício desse direito devem ser interpretados restritivamente (arts. 1º ao 4º).                Justificando sua razão de existência e demonstrando seu objeto e objetivo, a lei (LDA) define seu objeto informando que “são obras intelectuais protegidas as criações do espírito, expressas por qualquer meio ou fixadas em qualquer suporte, tangível ou intangível, conhecido ou que se invente no futuro”, e, a título de ilustração, traz um rol exemplificativo de espécies no seu art. 7º. Curiosamente, dentro do mesmo Título II e Capítulo I, definidor Das Obras Protegidas (citado no parágrafo anterior), no art. 8º a LDA informa, exemplificando, o que não é objeto de sua proteção, como direito autoral, e, logo a seguir, volta a informar que a cópia de obra de arte plástica feita pelo próprio autor (feita por terceiros não) goza da mesma proteção da obra original, e que “a proteção à obra abrange inclusive o respectivo título, se original e inconfundível com obra do mesmo gênero, divulgada anteriormente por outro autor”; fato do qual se deflui, de imediato, que podem co-existir mais de uma obra com o mesmo título se, e somente se, pertencentes a gêneros diferentes, como uma música e um filme, por exemplo (arts. 9º e 10). A lei sob exame, dentro do que descreve como direito autoral, estabelece duas espécies de proteções específicas, uma de ordem moral e outra de ordem patrimonial; e, de imediato, cabe observar que os direitos morais não se confundem com o dano moral. O dano moral, ou não-patrimonial, é respeitante a actio civilis ex-delicto², ou seja, é um direito de ação de reparação, na esfera civil, decorrente de um delito que atingiu o foro íntimo de uma pessoa, e que está catalogado no Código Penal como um dos crimes contra a honra, quais sejam: calúnia, difamação e injuria. Ao passo que direito moral é o direito que tem todo criador de obra intelectual de ter seu nome vinculado a sua criação, a sua obra, e de zelar pela integridade de sua obra, de modificá-la e até mesmo de conservá-la inédita. Enquanto o direito patrimonial é o resultado do uso do ato criativo (idéia, inspiração, imaginação) trabalhado, materializado, produzido, suado, corporificado por qualquer meio (papel, fita, CD, tela, barro, fotografia, etc.), capaz de ser reproduzido. O que popularmente chamam confusamente por direito autoral é apenas o percentual em dinheiro que cada autor tem direito na venda de um exemplar de livro, disco; na execução de uma música que compôs, na utilização de projeto que se desenhou, na venda de quadro que se pintou, etc. O que na verdade chamam por direito autoral é apenas uma das partes mais visíveis e agradáveis que resulta do ato criativo que a lei assegura ao autor ou detentor dos direitos de autor, ou seja, é o direito patrimonial e financeiro resultante do uso, ou mau uso, da obra. Desse modo, o mens legis (espírito da lei) e intenção do legislador autoral não são, como alguns propalam, apenas a proteção de obras intelectuais e seus autores. Visam, também, a proteção de uma espécie de cordão umbilical existente entre autor e obra criada, entre criador e criatura especialmente, e, ainda, visam à proteção aos direitos derivados do uso da obra enquanto elo de ligação genético: autor e obra. Assim, nos termos da lei, as obras intelectuais protegidas são criações do espírito, expressas por qualquer meio ou fixadas em qualquer suporte, tangível ou intangível, atualmente conhecido ou que se invente no futuro, compreendendo-se entre elas as obras de desenho, pintura, gravura, escultura, litografia e arte cinética, as ilustrações, cartas geográficas e outras da mesma natureza; os projetos, esboços e obras plásticas concernentes à geografia, engenharia, topografia, arquitetura, paisagismo, cenografia e ciência; as obras fotográficas e as produzidas por qualquer processo análogo ao da fotografia.  _________________________ 2 JESUS, Damásio E. Código de Processo Penal Anotado. 8.ed., São Paulo: Saraiva, 1989, p. 71 (art. 63 e ss.). As citadas obras intelectuais são conceituadas em quase todo o mundo ou mais propriamente nos países que subscreveram a Convenção de Berna, como o Brasil que ratificou a Convenção Universal sobre o Direito do Autor no Decreto nº 76.905, de 24.12.75, anexo, pelas expressões "criações visuais" ou "artes visuais", definindo, assim o campo criativo desenvolvido pelos criadores de obras de artes plásticas, criação gráfica e obras fotográficas. Os países que mantém sociedades de gestão coletiva desses direitos sob um modelo configurado internacionalmente pela CISAC (Confederação Internacional de Sociedades de Autores), a exemplo da ADAGP - Societé des Auteurs Dans les Arts Graphiques et Plastiques, constituída desde 1953, e da VEGAP - Visual Entidad de Gestión de Artistas Plásticos, constituída em 1990, congregam em seus quadros, como associados, os criadores das obras de artes plásticas, das obras de criação gráfica e obras fotográficas sob o conceito de criadores visuais.             No Brasil, como se verá, todos os criadores visuais atualmente são considerados autores desfrutando de direitos de autor, encontrando sua proteção no ordenamento jurídico na citada Lei n. 9.610/98, que consolida e classifica os direitos dos autores em três aspectos: l) de natureza moral, 2) de natureza patrimonial, e 3) de natureza conexa. 1.2 DA AUTORIA DE OBRAS INTELECTUAIS Adentrando na seara das definições, no Título II, Capítulo II, Da Autoria das Obras Intelectuais, a lei informa explicitamente quem pode ser considerado autor de obra intelectual, e, de plano, denota-se que todos os personagens que não estão envolvidos no processo de criação direta estão excluídos dos benefícios que concede aos criadores de obras intelectuais. Mais adiante, conforme se verá na análise das expressões “artista intérprete e executante”, no art. 5º, inciso XIII, e por ocasião da abordagem dos Direitos Conexos, no art. 89 e seguintes, a lei estabelece uma justa distinção entre o autor e o artista íntérprete-executante, sem excluir a possibilidade do autor ser, ao mesmo tempo, o íntérprete-executante de sua própria criação.                Assim, a respeito da capacidade de ser autor de obras intelectuais o legislador dispõe que: Art. 11. Autor é a pessoa física criadora de obra literária, artística ou científica. Parágrafo único. A proteção concedida ao autor poderá aplicar-se às pessoas jurídicas nos casos previstos nesta Lei. Art. 12. Para se identificar como autor, poderá o criador da obra literária, artística ou científica usar de seu nome civil, completo ou abreviado até por suas iniciais, de pseudônimo ou qualquer outro sinal convencional. Art. 13. Considera-se autor da obra intelectual, NÃO HAVENDO PROVA EM CONTRÁRIO, aquele que, por uma das modalidades de identificação referidas no artigo anterior, tiver, em conformidade com o uso, indicada ou anunciada essa qualidade na sua utilização. Art. 14. É titular de direitos de autor quem adapta, traduz, arranja ou orquestra obra caída no domínio público, não podendo opor-se a outra adaptação, arranjo, orquestração ou tradução, salvo se for cópia da sua. Art. 15. A co-autoria da obra é atribuída àqueles em cujo nome, pseudônimo ou sinal convencional for utilizada. § lº Não se considera co-autor quem simplesmente auxiliou o autor na produção da obra literária, artística ou científica, revendo-a, atualizando-a, bem como fiscalizando ou dirigindo sua edição ou apresentação por qualquer meio. § 2º Ao co-autor, cuja contribuição possa ser utilizada separadamente, são asseguradas todas as faculdades inerentes à sua criação como obra individual, vedada, porém, a utilização que possa acarretar prejuízo à exploração da obra comum. Art. 16. São co-autores da obra audiovisual o autor do assunto ou argumento literário, musical ou lítero-musical e o diretor. Parágrafo único. Consideram-se co-autores de desenhos animados os que criam os desenhos utilizados na obra audiovisual. Art. 17. É assegurada a proteção às participações individuais em obras coletivas. § lº Qualquer dos participantes, no exercício de seus direitos morais, poderá proibir que se indique ou anuncie seu nome na obra coletiva, sem prejuízo do direito de haver a remuneração contratada. § 2º Cabe ao organizador a titularidade dos direitos patrimoniais sobre o conjunto da obra coletiva. § 3º O contrato com o organizador especificará a contribuição do participante, o prazo para entrega ou realização, a remuneração e demais condições para sua execução. (Ipsis litteris, sublinha-se, negrita-se e destaca-se). 1.3 DOS PARÂMETROS DA LEI AUTORAL Dentre os termos e parâmetros norteadores da lei autoral abordou-se aqueles que mais interessam aos propósitos desse estudo, ou seja, aqueles sobre os quais popularmente pairam dúvidas e confusões quando confrontados com o significado de obra autêntica, omitido na lei, tais como reprodução, contrafação, obra inédita, obra originária e obra derivada. Dessa forma, localizados ainda nas disposições preliminares, a lei traz as seguintes definições, in verbis: Art. 5º Para os efeitos desta Lei, considera-se: I — publicação — o oferecimento de obra literária, artística ou científica ao conhecimento do público, com o consentimento do autor, ou de qualquer outro titular de direito de autor, por qualquer forma ou processo; II — transmissão ou emissão — a difusão de sons ou de sons e imagens, por meio de ondas radioelétricas; sinais de satélite; fio, cabo ou outro condutor; meios óticos ou qualquer outro processo eletromagnético; III — retransmissão — a emissão simultânea da transmissão de uma empresa por outra; IV — distribuição — a colocação à disposição do público do original ou cópia de obras literárias, artísticas ou científicas, interpretações ou execuções fixadas e fonogramas, mediante a venda, locação ou qualquer outra forma de transferência de propriedade ou posse; V — comunicação ao público — ato mediante o qual a obra é colocada ao alcance do público, por qualquer meio ou procedimento e que não consista na distribuição de exemplares; VI — reprodução — a cópia de um ou vários exemplares de uma obra literária, artística ou científica ou de um fonograma, de qualquer forma tangível, incluindo qualquer armazenamento permanente ou temporário por meios eletrônicos ou qualquer outro meio de fixação que venha a ser desenvolvido; VII — contrafação — a reprodução não autorizada; VIII—OBRA: a) em co-autoria — quando é criada em comum, por dois ou mais autores; b) anônima — quando não se indica o nome do autor, por sua vontade ou por ser desconhecido; c) pseudônima — quando o autor se oculta sob nome suposto; d) inédita — a que não haja sido objeto de publicação; e) póstuma — a que se publique após a morte do autor; f) originária — a criação primígena; g) derivada — a que, constituindo criação intelectual nova, resulta da transformação de obra originária; h) coletiva — a criada por iniciativa, organização e responsabilidade de uma pessoa física ou jurídica, que a publica sob seu nome ou marca e que é constituída pela participação de diferentes autores, cujas contribuições se fundem numa criação autônoma; i) audiovisual — a que resulta da fixação de imagens com ou sem som, que tenha a finalidade de criar, por meio de sua reprodução, a impressão de movimento, independentemente dos processos de sua captação, do suporte usado inicial ou posteriormente para fixá-lo, bem como dos meios utilizados para sua veiculação; IX — fonograma — toda fixação de sons de uma execução ou interpretação ou de outros sons, ou de uma representação de sons que não seja uma fixação incluída em uma obra audiovisual; X — editor — a pessoa física ou jurídica à qual se atribui o direito exclusivo de reprodução da obra e o dever de divulgá-la, nos limites previstos no contrato de edição; XI — produtor — a pessoa física ou jurídica que toma a iniciativa e tem a responsabilidade econômica da primeira fixação do fonograma ou da obra audiovisual, qualquer que seja a natureza do suporte utilizado; XII — radiodifusão — a transmissão sem fio, inclusive por satélites, de sons ou imagens e sons ou das representações desses, para recepção ao público e a transmissão de sinais codificados, quando os meios de decodificação sejam oferecidos ao público pelo organismo de radiodifusão ou com seu consentimento; XIII — artistas intérpretes ou executantes — todos os atores, cantores, músicos, bailarinos ou outras pessoas que representem um papel, cantem, recitem, declamem, interpretem ou executem em qualquer forma obras literárias ou artísticas ou expressões do folclore. (Negrita-se e ressalta-se). Das definições destacadas acima, embora algumas vezes empregadas erroneamente até como palavras sinônimas umas das outras, acredita-se que não oferecem grande dificuldade de entendimento o que seja reprodução de uma obra, contrafação de obra, obra inédita, obra originária e obra derivada, conforme se ressaltou anteriormente. Buscando na lei soluções para um dos maiores problemas que afligiram e atormentam a sociedade, que é o terrível problema do crime de falsidade com efeitos no direito autoral, do qual o Brasil é um dos maiores mercados globais de produtos com copyright legítimo e um dos maiores mercados “piratas” do mundo, nada se constatou a respeito de autenticidade de obras; simplesmente o legislador deve ter tido suas razões para ter sido omisso a respeito. Seja como for, sabe-se que a expressão primígena é dada ao primeiro da espécie, que não ocorreu nem existiu antes; que foi feito pela primeira vez e não imita nem segue ninguém. Assim, dado o conceito de obra original, tem-se conseqüentemente que obra derivada é gerada a partir de obra já existente, não se confundindo com copiosa reprodução ou contrafação. Por sua vez, já tentando em rápidas palavras suprir a omissão do legislador, diz-se obra autêntica a que é do autor a quem se atribui; a que se pode dar fé; a fidedigna; a que deveria gozar de presunção juris et de jure (de direito e por direito), ou de jure absoluto (de direito absoluto) até prova em contrário, mas que, no entanto, como se verá mais adiante, o legislador fez constar no art. 13 que “se considera autor da obra intelectual, não havendo prova em contrário, aquele que... tiver, em conformidade com o uso, indicada ou anunciada essa qualidade na sua utilização”, pois, para efeitos legais, a proteção aos direitos autorais não depende de registro (art. 18), e, muito embora não dependa de registro, é certo que até hoje carece de implementação pelo Estado a efetiva “defesa da integridade e autoria da obra caída em domínio público”, tão decantada no § 2º, do art. 24, dos direitos morais do autor. De fato, concessa venia, o que inexiste não pode ser confirmado e o direito dá a cada um o que é seu. Mas, a autenticidade, do mesmo modo que o direito autoral, independe e subsiste além da jurisdição estatal, que, aliás, geralmente só marca presença quando instada a dirimir conflito, inclusive na seara da autenticidade. Assim, sendo certo que, embora a autenticidade de uma obra ou sua autoria existam e sejam, por sua própria natureza e condição, independentes de qualquer atividade estatal a conferir certificação, é igualmente certo que existem situações nas quais não se chega a um entendimento pacífico sobre a autenticidade de uma obra sem a presença do estado-juiz a “tentar” dirimir dúvidas. Por sua vez, o fato de o Estado furtar-se da responsabilidade de controlar, de certificar e registrar a autenticidade de obras até prova em contrário, ao invés de diminuir as contendas judiciais ligadas à autoria de obras, dá mais vazão ao comércio imoral da pirataria e solidifica o paraíso institucional do fraudador, que, aliás, diga-se de passagem, A PIRATARIA NASCEU NA MESMA MATERNIDADE QUE O DIREITO AUTORAL PORQUE UBILAOMO, IBI JUS (onde está o homem, está o direito), e onde está o direito de petição à jurisdição estatal está, ou esteve, o crime e a contravenção. A pirataria remonta aos tempos das primeiras navegações e descobertas, muito antes da existência das facilidades de copiagem e internet, hoje à disposição da maioria das pessoas do mundo. O direito do autor, ou copyright, ou royalties, teve início com uma concessão feita pela Coroa Britânica, ainda na Idade Média, a apaniguados editores que, em troca do privilégio da comercialização de livros, controlavam os escritos e excluíam de publicação os que não interessavam aos monarcas. Desse modo, espertalhões deram início, sorrateiramente, ao surgimento de escritos de outros países, desde logo acusados de “falsos” porque fora do alcance do privilégio e do controle censório. Mais tarde, em face da natural necessidade humana de ter acesso ao conteúdo de documentos e obras que pudessem trazer facilidades, belezas e melhorias para suas vidas cotidianas, seja pela dificuldade de se ter acesso a conteúdos e materiais oficiais, controlados e “legítimos”, seja pelo alto preço de custo, seja pela pouca disponibilização desses conteúdos, meios e materiais ao público consumidor, é certo que se incentivou a cópia. Sendo igualmente certo, hoje, que, apesar de ter adotado recente legislação moderna de propriedade intelectual, o Brasil vem combatendo a pirataria bem antes da nova ordem internacional, apontada somente a partir do final do século passado. CAPÍTULO 2 DOS DIREITOS MORAIS E PATRIMONIAIS DO AUTOR 2.1 DOS DIREITOS MORAIS DO AUTOR                   Sob o Título III, Dos Direitos do Autor, logo no Capítulo I, constam de modo preliminar na lei, por óbvio e ululante, as disposições de que “pertencem ao autor os diretos morais e patrimoniais sobre a obra que criou”, e que “os co-autores da obra intelectual exercerão, de comum acordo, os seus direitos, salvo convenção em contrário” (arts. 22 e 23). Consultando o Capítulo II, Dos Direitos Morais do Autor, dentro do mesmo Título III acima citado, destaca-se especialmente que: Art. 24. São direitos morais do autor: I — o de reivindicar, a qualquer tempo, a autoria da obra; II — o de ter seu nome, pseudônimo ou sinal convencional indicado ou anunciado, como sendo o do autor, na utilização de sua obra; III — o de conservar a obra inédita; IV — o de assegurar a integridade da obra, opondo-se a quaisquer modificações ou à prática de atos que, de qualquer forma, possam prejudicá-la ou atingi-lo, como autor, em sua reputação ou honra; V — o de modificar a obra, antes ou depois de utilizada; VI — o de retirar de circulação a obra ou de suspender qualquer forma de utilização já autorizada, quando a circulação ou utilização implicarem afronta à sua reputação e imagem; VII — o de ter acesso a exemplar único e raro da obra, quando se encontre legitimamente em poder de outrem, para o fim de, por meio de processo fotográfico ou assemelhado, ou audiovisual, preservar sua memória, de forma que cause o menor inconveniente possível a seu detentor, que, em todo caso, será indenizado de qualquer dano ou prejuízo que lhe seja causado. (Negrita-se e sublinha-se, ipsis litteris).                 Didaticamente, como se pode notar, trazendo um rol exemplificativo de situações nas quais se pode detectar a presença do direito do autor derivado do que se concebe como moral, por praticidade evitou-se também adentrar na polêmica conceituação filosófica do que seja moral, ética, imoral e antiética. Todavia, para não deixar completamente sem respostas, face às máximas da experiência do que comumente acontece no universo da arte, permite-se entabular que a moral, na arte, consiste precisamente no dever que tem um artista de exprimir inteiramente aquilo que sente e aquilo que pensa, na independência absoluta da opinião e do gosto do público, porque a moral muda conforme a pessoa, a cultura, o costume, o tempo e lugar; é diferente em todos os países, e em nenhum quis habitar. Por outro lado, tratando-se de artistas a proteção conferida pelo direito autoral referente à imagem é dupla: uma referente ao cidadão comum e outra enquanto intérprete de uma personagem. Fernanda Montenegro ou Marília Pêra, por exemplo, pode gravar um anúncio como artista ou como ela mesma. Pode gravar uma novela interpretando uma personagem. Pode gravar um filme. Como pode ser flagrada por uma câmera numa recepção pública ou num restaurante com a família, ou mesmo no recesso do lar. Em cada uma dessas situações a sua imagem tem um tratamento específico conferido pela lei: como pessoa comum é apenas titular de um direito de personalidade; como artista é também titular de direito autoral conexo, que se realiza e se inicia com as gravações. Entretanto, o direito de imagem, que é um direito absoluto, sofre derrogações à vista do interesse púbico. É o que acontece quando se trata de pessoa notória da área política, empresarial ou cultural. Daí não se infira que é possível, em nome da liberdade de informação, ferir outra garantia constitucional individual e paralela, que é a garantia do respeito à honra ou a vida privada da pessoa pública. A notoriedade permite apenas a livre divulgação do retrato e das considerações da pessoa renomada enquanto vinculada a acontecimentos públicos, quando assumir posições e exposições públicas. Em outras palavras, a pessoa notória não poderá se opor à divulgação de aspectos de seus bens de personalidade quando, via exposição púbica, consente implicitamente na vulgarização desses bens. Já a transposição da barreira pública para a privada por terceiros não autorizados, ainda que profissionais da comunicação ou da informação, implicará a violação do direito de personalidade da pessoa pública caracterizando o dano moral decorrente, dando ensejo à conseqüente indenização. 2.1.1 Duração e Transferência dos Direitos Morais             Consultando o art. 24 e seguintes da lei autoral tem-se a noção da extensão dos direitos morais do autor sobre a obra que criou nos seguintes termos: § lº Por morte do autor, transmitem-se a seus sucessores os direitos a que se referem os incisos I a IV. § 2º Compete ao Estado a defesa da integridade e autoria da obra caída em domínio público. § 3º Nos casos dos incisos V e VI, ressalvam-se as prévias indenizações a terceiros, quando couberem. Art. 25. Cabe exclusivamente ao diretor o exercício dos direitos morais sobre a obra audiovisual. Art. 26. O autor poderá repudiar a autoria de projeto arquitetônico alterado sem o seu consentimento durante a execução ou após a conclusão da construção. Parágrafo único. O proprietário da construção responde pelos danos que causar ao autor sempre que, após o repúdio, der como sendo daquele a autoria do projeto repudiado. Art. 27. Os direitos morais do autor são inalienáveis e irrenunciáveis. (Sublinha-se e negrita-se, in verbis). Decorrente da própria condição humana, os direitos da personalidade (morais) existem a partir do nascimento do ser humano com vida. São intransmissíveis porque inerentes à própria pessoa humana. São inseparáveis da pessoa humana e são irrenunciáveis durante a vida ou mesmo depois da morte.                    Os direitos morais são indisponíveis porque não podem ser transferidos, vendidos ou doados, e apenas seu titular pode fruir. São irrenunciáveis porque sem eles a própria personalidade desapareceria. São inexpropriáveis porque nem mesmo o Estado pode separá-los do indivíduo criador. São imprescritíveis porque não prescrevem nunca, não se adquirem ou se extinguem pelo não uso, perduram por todo o sempre, além da vida humana à qual pertencem.                   Por isso, quando a lei estampa as exceções de que pela morte do autor transmitem-se a seus sucessores os direitos morais do autor, em verdade o que se transmite com garantia legal é o direito dos herdeiros de reivindicar, a qualquer tempo, a autoria criadora da obra, que é de seu ancestral; é o direito que tem o herdeiro de ter o nome, sinal ou marca de seu ancestral, indicado, mostrado, respeitado e anunciado quando utilizam a obra que o ancestral criou; é o direito que tem o herdeiro de conservar a obra de seu ancestral inédita; é o direito que tem o herdeiro de assegurar a integridade da obra, reputação e honra de seu ancestral; é o direito que tem o herdeiro, na hipótese de violação aos direitos morais de seu ancestral, de exigir a reparação de ofensa ao patrimônio herdado (dano moral decorrente de ilícito ao direito autoral) pelo mau uso ou uso não autorizado que fizeram da obra de seu ancestral. 2.2 DOS DIREITOS PATRIMONAIS DO AUTOR           No tocante aos direitos patrimoniais do autor destacam-se os que se referem ao proveito econômico pelo uso das obras, nos seguintes termos, verbis: Art. 28. Cabe ao autor o direito exclusivo de utilizar, fruir e dispor da obra literária, artística ou científica. Art. 29. Depende de autorização prévia e expressa do autor a utilização da obra, por quaisquer modalidades, tais como: I — a reprodução parcial ou integral; II — a edição; III — a adaptação, o arranjo musical e quaisquer outras transformações; IV — a tradução para qualquer idioma; V — a inclusão em fonograma ou produção audiovisual; VI — a distribuição, quando não intrínseca ao contrato firmado pelo autor com terceiros para uso ou exploração da obra; VII — a distribuição para oferta de obras ou produções mediante cabo, fibra ótica, satélite, ondas ou qualquer outro sistema que permita ao usuário realizar a seleção da obra ou produção para percebê-la em um tempo e lugar previamente determinados por quem formula a demanda, e nos casos em que o acesso às obras ou produções se faça por qualquer sistema que importe em pagamento pelo usuário; VIII — a utilização, direta ou indireta, da obra literária, artística ou científica, mediante: a) representação, recitação ou declamação; b) execução musical; c) emprego de alto-falante ou de sistemas análogos; d) radiodifusão sonora ou televisiva; e) captação de transmissão de radiodifusão em locais de freqüência coletiva; f) sonorização ambiental; g) a exibição audiovisual, cinematográfica ou por processo assemelhado; h) emprego de satélites artificiais; í) emprego de sistemas óticos, fios telefônicos ou não, cabos de qualquer tipo e meios de comunicação similares que venham a ser adotados; j) exposição de obras de artes plásticas e figurativas; IX — a inclusão em base de dados, o armazenamento em computador, a microfilmagem e as demais formas de arquivamento do gênero; X — quaisquer outras modalidades de utilização existentes ou que venham a ser inventadas. Art. 30. No exercício do direito de reprodução, o titular dos direitos autorais poderá colocar à disposição do público a obra, na forma, local e pelo tempo que desejar, a título oneroso ou gratuito. § 1º O direito de exclusividade de reprodução não será aplicável quando ela for temporária e apenas tiver o propósito de tornar a obra, fonograma ou interpretação perceptível em meio eletrônico ou quando for de natureza transitória e incidental, desde que ocorra no curso do uso devidamente autorizado da obra, pelo titular. § 2º Em qualquer modalidade de reprodução, a quantidade de exemplares será informada e controlada, cabendo a quem reproduzir a obra a responsabilidade de manter os registros que permitam, ao autor, a fiscalização do aproveitamento econômico da exploração. Art. 31. As diversas modalidades de utilização de obras literárias, artísticas ou científicas ou de fonogramas são independentes entre si, e a autorização concedida pelo autor, ou pelo produtor, respectivamente, não se estende a quaisquer das demais. Art. 32. Quando uma obra feita em regime de co-autoria não for divisível, nenhum dos co-autores, sob pena de responder por perdas e danos, poderá, sem consentimento dos demais, publicá-la ou autorizar-lhe a publicação, salvo na coleção de suas obras completas. § lº Havendo divergência, os co-autores decidirão por maioria. § 2º Ao co-autor dissidente é assegurado o direito de não contribuir para as despesas de publicação, renunciando a sua parte nos lucros, e o de vedar que se inscreva seu nome na obra. § 3º Cada co-autor pode, individualmente, sem aquiescência dos outros, registrar a obra e defender os próprios direitos contra terceiros. Art. 33. Ninguém pode reproduzir obra que não pertença ao domínio público, a pretexto de anotá-la, comentá-la ou melhorá-la, sem permissão do autor. Parágrafo único. Os comentários ou anotações poderão ser publicados separadamente. Art. 34. As cartas missivas, cuja publicação está condicionada à permissão do autor, poderão ser juntadas como documento de prova em processos administrativos e judiciais. Art. 35. Quando o autor, em virtude de revisão, tiver dado à obra versão definitiva, não poderão seus sucessores reproduzir versões anteriores. Art. 36. O direito de utilização econômica dos escritos publicados pela imprensa, diária ou periódica, com exceção dos assinados ou que apresentem sinal de reserva, pertence ao editor, salvo convenção em contrário. Parágrafo único. A autorização para utilização econômica de artigos assinados, para publicação em diários e periódicos, não produz efeito além do prazo da periodicidade acrescido de 20 (vinte) dias, a contar de sua publicação, findo o qual recobra o autor o seu direito. Art. 37. A aquisição do original de uma obra, ou de exemplar, não confere ao adquirente qualquer dos direitos patrimoniais do autor, salvo convenção em contrário entre as partes e os casos previstos nesta Lei. Art. 38. O autor tem o direito, irrenunciável e inalienável, de perceber, no mínimo, 5% (cinco por cento) sobre o aumento do preço eventualmente verificável em cada revenda de obra de arte ou manuscrito, sendo originais, que houver alienado. Parágrafo único. Caso o autor não perceba o seu direito de seqüência no ato da revenda, o vendedor é considerado depositário da quantia a ele devida, salvo se a operação for realizada por leiloeiro, quando será este o depositário. Art. 39. Os direitos patrimoniais do autor, excetuados os rendimentos resultantes de sua exploração, não se comunicam, salvo pacto antenupcial em contrário. Art. 40. Tratando-se de obra anônima ou pseudônima, caberá a quem publicá-la o exercício dos direitos patrimoniais do autor. Parágrafo único. O autor que se der a conhecer assumirá o exercício dos direitos patrimoniais, ressalvados os direitos adquiridos por terceiros. (Negrita-se e sublinha-se). Como percebível, os direitos patrimoniais também decorrem da Constituição Federal, art. 5º, XXVII, e na Europa e alguns países da América Latina, os direitos de exploração das criações visuais estão a cargo de sociedades de gestão coletiva, justamente para abarcar o universo de utilizações que o autor, particularmente, não tem condições de exercitar. Nesse aspecto, a administração coletiva de direitos é essencial para atender aos interesses dos autores, a fim de que seus direitos, no coletivo, sejam efetivamente aplicados, ao mesmo tempo em que a administração coletiva torna mais fácil satisfazer as necessidades dos usuários, a ponto do artista “não” precisar passar fome para sobreviver com dignidade. Relativamente às obras de artes plásticas, o artigo 38 contemplou o direito de sequência, reservando ao autor o direito, irrenunciável e inalienável, de perceber, no mínimo, cinco por cento sobre o aumento do preço eventualmente verificável em cada revenda de obra de arte ou manuscrito, sendo originais, que houver alienado. Caso o autor não perceba o seu direito de sequência no ato da revenda, o vendedor é considerado depositário da quantia a ele devida, salvo se a operação for realizada por leiloeiro, quando será este o depositário. O direito de sequência, conhecido mundialmente como droite de suíte trata-se de um direito de participação do artista em relação à venda de suas obras no mercado de arte. É um direito que se exercido individualmente está fadado ao insucesso, pois, o autor não tem a faculdade de autorizar ou desautorizar a revenda de suas obras, escapando de seu controle o andamento de sua obra nesse mercado. Assim o demonstra a experiência européia, especialmente da Espanha, França, Alemanha, Itália, Suíça, que tem esse direito controlado através de gestão coletiva. A distribuição de obras de arte pode dar-se através de vendas em leilões, galerias de arte, ou mesmo entre particulares. No caso das salas de leilões, há divulgação prévia das obras de arte postas a leilão, com catálogos editados pelos próprios leiloeiros, o que facilita o conhecimento da realização do negócio e permite que entidades gestoras de direito, acompanhem os leilões. No caso de galerias de arte que adquirem obras para revenda, também há o dever de informação das obras de arte postas à venda. Na comunidade européia, as sociedades de gestão coletiva ao administrarem o droite de suite - direito de participação - subscrevem convênios com as associações de galerias existentes, com as salas de leilões facilitando assim o acompanhamento das revendas para aplicação da plus valia. Como exemplo desse fato, a CISAC (Confederação Internacional de Sociedade de Autores) é depositária de um documento que informa sobre importante convênio firmado pela sociedade gestora de artes plásticas da Alemanha - Bild-Kunst - com o Sindicato de Vendedores e Organizações de Vendedores de Arte da Alemanha. Verifica-se que, em se tratando de um direito de simples remuneração, o papel normalizador e mediador das sociedades de gestão é fundamental para o desenvolvimento pacífico e eficaz na aplicação do direito. Além do aspecto da remuneração, o exercício desse direito reforça os aspectos fundamentais do direito de autor, ou seja, garantir ao artista plástico a legítima prerrogativa de acompanhar o êxito de suas obras. Sobreleve-se ainda o aspecto internacional do mercado de arte, que nesse caso está resguardado pelo princípio da reciprocidade estabelecido na Convenção de Berna a seus países membros, o que possibilita uma sociedade de determinado país administrar a retribuição relativa ao direito de participação de um artista estrangeiro, representando a sociedade a que o mesmo artista esteja filiado. 2.2.1 Duração e Transferência dos Direitos Patrimoniais                              Contrariamente a duração dos direitos morais que não se extinguem nem com a morte do autor criador, os direitos patrimoniais possuem prazo de proteção para o seu exercício, e, uma vez findo, passam a pertencer ao domínio público tal como sucede nos países da Comunidade Européia, nos seguintes termos: Art. 41. Os direitos patrimoniais do autor perduram por 70 (setenta) anos contados de 1º de janeiro do ano subseqüente ao de seu falecimento, obedecida a ordem sucessória da lei civil. Parágrafo único. Aplica-se às obras póstumas o prazo de proteção a que alude o caput deste artigo. Art. 42. Quando a obra literária, artística ou científica realizada em co-autoria for indivisível o prazo previsto no artigo anterior será contado da morte do último dos co-autores sobreviventes. Parágrafo único. Acrescer-se-ão aos dos sobreviventes os direitos do co-autor que falecer sem sucessores. Art. 43. Será de 70 (setenta) anos o prazo de proteção aos direitos patrimoniais sobre as obras anônimas ou pseudônimas, contado de 1º de janeiro do ano imediatamente posterior ao da primeira publicação. Parágrafo único. Aplicar-se-á o disposto no art. 41 e seu parágrafo único, sempre que o autor se der a conhecer antes do termo do prazo previsto no caput deste artigo. Art. 44. O prazo de proteção aos direitos patrimoniais sobre obras audiovisuais e fotográficas será de 70 (setenta) anos, a contar de 1º de janeiro do ano subseqüente ao de sua divulgação. Art. 45. Além das obras em relação às quais decorreu o prazo de proteção aos direitos patrimoniais, PERTENCEM AO DOMÍNIO PÚBLICO: I — as de autores falecidos que não tenham deixado sucessores; II — as de autor desconhecido, ressalvada a proteção legal aos conhecimentos étnicos e tradicionais. (Sublinha-se, negrita-se e ressalta-se, in verbis).                No mesmo Título III, referente ainda aos direitos do autor, no Capítulo V da lei está prevista a transferência de direitos patrimoniais (art. 24 § 1º c/c art. 27), nos seguintes termos, verbis: Art. 49. Os direitos de autor poderão ser total ou parcialmente transferidos a terceiros, por ele ou por seus sucessores, a título universal ou singular, pessoalmente ou por meio de representantes com poderes especiais, por meio de licenciamento, concessão, cessão ou por outros meios admitidos em Direito, obedecidas as seguintes limitações: I — a transmissão total compreende todos os direitos de autor, salvo os de natureza moral e os expressamente excluídos por lei; II — somente se admitirá transmissão total e definitiva dos direitos mediante estipulação contratual escrita; III — na hipótese de não haver estipulação contratual escrita, o prazo máximo será de 5 (cinco) anos; IV — a cessão será válida unicamente para o país em que se firmou o contrato, salvo estipulação em contrário; V — a cessão só se operará para modalidades de utilização já existentes à data do contrato; VI — não havendo especificações quanto à modalidade de utilização, o contrato será interpretado restritivamente, entendendo-se como limitada apenas a uma que seja aquela indispensável ao cumprimento da finalidade do contrato. Art. 50. A cessão total ou parcial dos direitos de autor, que se fará sempre por escrito, presume-se onerosa. § lº Poderá a cessão ser averbada à margem do registro a que se refere o art. 19 desta Lei, ou, não estando a obra registrada, poderá o instrumento ser registrado em Cartório de Títulos e Documentos. § 2º Constarão do instrumento de cessão como elementos essenciais seu objeto e as condições de exercício do direito quanto a tempo, lugar e preço. Art. 51. A cessão dos direitos de autor sobre obras futuras abrangerá, no máximo, o período de 5 (cinco) anos. Parágrafo único. O prazo será reduzido a 5 (cinco) anos sempre que indeterminado ou superior, diminuindo-se, na devida proporção, o preço estipulado. Art. 52. A omissão do nome do autor, ou de co-autor, na divulgação da obra não presume o anonimato ou a cessão de seus direitos. (Sublinha-se e negrita-se). 2.3 LIMITES AOS DIREITOS DO AUTOR Cada vez que um anúncio, uma música, um filme, uma novela etc. são reexibidos, essa reprodução gera direitos autorais a artistas e demais titulares desses direitos. Tudo deve estar previsto num bom contrato, que deve conter o número de veiculações, os canais de exibição, o território etc. No contrato, os atores, por exemplo, podem exigir que a agência de propaganda ou produtora lhes dê conhecimento das veiculações posteriores à realização do trabalho, creditando-lhes o correspondente pagamento. A mesma lei que define e exemplifica o que são as obras protegidas, também estabelece limites à proteção, isto é, menciona as obras que dispensam a prévia autorização ou os modos de como o uso não constitui ofensa ao direito do autor. É onde o interesse público predomina, embora interesses privados, muito em voga na atualidade, a cada nova rodada de leis sobre o assunto, tentem reduzi-lo cada vez mais. São, entre outros, exemplos de obras que podem ser utilizadas livremente em decorrência de expressa isenção legal por refletirem mais os direitos de todos (sociedade), à informação e ao conhecimento do que o direito individual do titular: a reprodução de texto jornalístico, com referência à fonte (nome do articulista e do periódico); a reprodução em jornais ou revistas de discursos públicos; a reprodução, em um só exemplar, de trechos de obra publicada para uso privado; a citação para fins de estudo ou crítica com referencia à fonte (nome do autor e origem da obra); o apanhado de aulas e lições para uso pessoal do aluno (nada a ver com apostilas); a utilização das obras nos estabelecimentos comerciais que às expõem à venda. O uso de obras protegidas para fim de paródias e paráfrase é livre, desde que não lhe impliquem descrédito, isto é, que não atinjam a honra do autor, ou desqualifiquem a obra. Neste ponto é preciso muito cuidado por parte de todos que orbitam em torno de um problema dessa natureza, porque está em jogo a liberdade de expressão. E, finalmente, como já adiantado, há um campo de verdadeira imunidade a qualquer proteção de caráter autoral: é o das idéias, dos conceitos, dos métodos, dos sistemas, dos cálculos, dos projetos. O resultado material dessas idéias, métodos etc., isto é, sua expressão fixada em base corpórea, concreta, palpável é que é protegida pela lei autoral e não as idéias, os projetos, os métodos, os cálculos em si. Exemplifica-se: o livro de ensino de matemática é de criação de determinado autor, mas não os cálculos embutidos em cada exercício. O direito autoral não cobre qualquer idéia ou conceito existente por detrás de uma obra criada. A lei acrescenta ao campo da imunidade os formulários, a reprodução de textos de lei e de decisões judiciais, informações de uso comum como calendários, legendas e nomes, e títulos isolados das obras. Aqui vigora o não-direito autoral, onde não há propriedade de ninguém, onde podem todos transitar independentemente de qualquer autorização. O contrário seria obstar o desenvolvimento das artes e da ciência, o que não se concebe. A grande finalidade do direito autoral é a de incrementar a difusão da cultura e do conhecimento, contemplando uma classe especial de pessoas, os artistas, os cientistas, os pensadores, os criadores em geral, conferindo-lhes um privilégio temporário para poderem explorar economicamente, e com exclusividade, o fruto da sua criação. Esse privilégio, no entanto, está limitado à obra criada, porque todos têm o direito de criar e, portanto, o direito de usufruir cada qual do resultado de sua criação. Essa é a diferença entre o monopólio e o privilégio. Se direito autoral fosse um monopólio, só o primeiro escritor que tratou do triângulo amoroso poderia sobre ele escrever, só o primeiro pintor abstrato, ou o criador das colagens, poderia criar obras desse tipo, apenas o David Letterman, via CBS, poderia autorizar qualquer outro artista ou meio de radiodifusão a entrevistar uma pessoa por vez, com música ao vivo, tomando chá de canequinha... Quando se fala em limites também significa que existem coisas sobre as quais pode-se até tentar, mas não se vai obter a exclusividade porque são de domínio comum. Piadas, receitas culinárias, modelos de roupa, por exemplo, são todas obras derivadas de criações do espírito. Já imaginou se para contar uma piada ou fazer uma nova receita de macarronada você tivesse que pedir licença para alguém (o uso público de uma obra protegida está condicionado à prévia e expressa autorização de seu titular, pessoa física ou jurídica se os direitos foram negociados)? A humanidade ficaria reduzida à tristeza e à fome, mesmo porque até descobrir o dono, e ainda pedir licença... Assim, impondo limites aos usuários dos direitos do autor, a lei ressalta in verbis que: Art. 46. Não constitui ofensa aos direitos autorais: I — a reprodução: a) na imprensa diária ou periódica, de notícia ou de artigo informativo, publicado em diários ou periódicos, com a menção do nome do autor, se assinados, e da publicação de onde foram transcritos; b) em diários ou periódicos, de discursos pronunciados em reuniões públicas de qualquer natureza; c) de retratos, ou de outra forma de representação da imagem, feitos sob encomenda, quando realizada pelo proprietário do objeto encomendado, não havendo a oposição da pessoa neles representada ou de seus herdeiros; d) de obras literárias, artísticas ou científicas, para uso exclusivo de deficientes visuais, sempre que a reprodução, sem fins comerciais, seja feita mediante o sistema Braille ou outro procedimento em qualquer suporte para esses destinatários; II — a reprodução, em um só exemplar de pequenos trechos, para uso privado do copista, desde que feita por este, sem intuito de lucro; III — a citação em livros, jornais, revistas ou qualquer outro meio de comunicação, de passagens de qualquer obra, para fins de estudo, crítica ou polêmica, na medida justificada para o fim a atingir, indicando-se o nome do autor e a origem da obra; IV — o apanhado de lições em estabelecimentos de ensino por aqueles a quem elas se dirigem, vedada sua publicação, integral ou parcial, sem autorização prévia e expressa de quem as ministrou; V — a utilização de obras literárias, artísticas ou científicas, fonogramas e transmissão de rádio e televisão em estabelecimentos comerciais, exclusivamente para demonstração à clientela, desde que esses estabelecimentos comercializem os suportes ou equipamentos que permitam a sua utilização; VI — a representação teatral e a execução musical, quando realizadas no recesso familiar ou, para fins exclusivamente didáticos, nos estabelecimentos de ensino, não havendo em qualquer caso intuito de lucro; VII — a utilização de obras literárias, artísticas ou científicas para produzir prova judiciária ou administrativa; VIII — a reprodução, em quaisquer obras, de pequenos trechos de obras preexistentes, de qualquer natureza, ou de obra integral, quando de artes plásticas, sempre que a reprodução em si não seja o objetivo principal da obra nova e que não prejudique a exploração normal da obra reproduzida nem cause um prejuízo injustificado aos legítimos interesses dos autores. Art. 47. São livres as paráfrases e paródias que não forem verdadeiras reproduções da obra originária nem lhe implicarem descrédito. Art. 48. As obras situadas permanentemente em logradouros públicos podem ser representadas livremente, por meio de pinturas, desenhos, fotografias e procedimentos audiovisuais. (Sublinha-se e negrita-se). CAPÍTULO 3 DOS DIREITOS CONEXOS E SANÇÕES 3.1 DOS TITULARES DOS DIREITOS CONEXOS Conhecido como o Terceiro Direito dentre a trilogia de direitos morais, patrimoniais e conexos que compõem o Direito Autoral Brasileiro, os Direitos Conexos, ou derivados, entabulados no Título V, subdividem-se também em três (3) outros ramos: 1º) Dos Direitos dos Artistas Intérpretes ou Executantes (arts. 90 a 92); 2º) Dos Direitos dos Produtores Fonográficos (arts. 93 e 94), e 3º) Dos Direitos das Empresas de Radiodifusão (art.95). Dito isto, convém salientar de imediato que embora os direitos conexos não se confundem jamais com os direitos de autor nem com os direitos do artista-intérprete-executante, até porque o art. 11 deixa claro que “autor é pessoa física criadora de obra literária, artística ou científica”, enquanto o art. 5º, inciso XIII enfatiza que se consideram “artistas intérpretes ou executantes — todos os atores, cantores, músicos, bailarinos ou outras pessoas que representem um papel, cantem, recitem, declamem, interpretem ou executem em qualquer forma obras literárias ou artísticas ou expressões do folclore”, é igualmente fato inconteste que no parágrafo único do citado dispositivo o legislador fez constar que “a proteção concedida ao autor poderá aplicar-se às pessoas jurídicas nos casos previstos nesta Lei”, hipótese da figura do editor (art. 5º, X), do produtor (art. 5º, XI) da empresa de radiodifusão e similares (art. 5º, XII). Corroborando ainda a mencionada diferenciação entre direitos principais (direitos do autor) e direitos acessórios (direitos conexos), que são os direitos dos intérpretes (executantes), produtores fonográficos e empresas de radiodifusão, consta expressamente no art. 89 que “as normas relativas aos direitos de autor aplicam-se, no que couber, aos direitos dos artistas intérpretes ou executantes, dos produtores fonográficos e das empresas de radiodifusão”. E sepultando qualquer eventual dúvida ainda existente quanto à diferenciação entre os direitos do autor e os direitos conexos, no parágrafo único do citado art. 89 o legislador jogou uma pá de cal sobre o assunto ao estabelecer que “a proteção desta Lei aos direitos previstos neste artigo deixa intactas e não afeta as garantias asseguradas aos autores das obras literárias, artísticas ou científicas” (sublinha-se). 3.2 DA PROTEÇÃO AOS DIREITOS CONEXOS                Por outro lado, em face da personalidade distintiva que, por vezes, são empregadas na interpretação ou execução de obras, tornando-as, por isso mesmo, peculiares graças ao talento reconhecido do artista intérprete ou executor, a lei assegura a esses artistas o direito exclusivo de autorizar ou proibir qualquer modalidade de utilização de suas interpretações ou execuções, e, mais, dispõe ainda que a proteção dos direitos desses artistas estende-se à reprodução da voz e imagem, quando associadas às suas atuações (art. 90, caput e § 2º). Ressalta-se ainda que a lei impõe tratamento diferenciado também entre a pessoa do artista intérprete e a pessoa do executante quando taxativamente assegura apenas aos intérpretes (não aos executores) “os direitos morais de integridade e paternidade de suas interpretações, inclusive depois da cessão dos direitos patrimoniais” (art. 92). Consultando os direitos dos produtores fonográficos exemplificados no art. 93, por similaridade denota-se o mesmo dispositivo conferido aos artistas-intérpretes ou executante, qual seja: o produtor de fonogramas tem direito exclusivo de autorizar ou proibir a reprodução, distribuição ou locação, comunicação ao público ou quaisquer modalidades de utilização de produto sob seu patrocínio. 3.3 DA DURAÇÃO DOS DIREITOS CONEXOS Quanto à duração da proteção aos direitos conexos, a lei estabelece que é de setenta anos o prazo de proteção aos direitos conexos, contados de 1º de janeiro do ano subseqüente: a) à fixação, para os fonogramas; b) à transmissão, para as emissões das empresas de radiodifusão, e c) à execução e representação pública, para os demais casos. 3.4 DAS INFRAÇÕES À LEI AUTORAL                 Quanto às sanções às violações dos direitos autorais, consta na Lei sobre Direito Autoral e legislação esparsa que os infratores dos direitos morais, patrimoniais e conexos responderão na esfera civil e criminal pelos danos que causarem (art. 110). CAPITULO 4 AUTENTICIDADE FORMAL E MATERIAL NA OBRA INTELECTUAL 4.1 POR UM CONCEITO DE OBRA DE ARTE Apesar da preocupação deste trabalho não residir na conceituação do que seja obra de arte por quanto o tema é a abordagem da autenticidade de uma obra intelectual, ou não, para auxílio ao Direito Autoral forense, não se pode esquecer de que durante muitos anos se questionou, inclusive, se o próprio Direito seria uma arte ou ciência. Portanto, sem retomar a ultrapassada questão, necessário se faz abrir esta reflexão para que, através de breve exposição, se possa ao menos perceber o que vem a ser uma obra de arte conceitualmente, a fim de facilitar o entendimento do que seja uma obra autêntica, que, adiantando, necessariamente a expressão não é obrigada a referir-se tão apenas à obra literária ou artística, podendo ser científica, inclusive. Atribuir um nítido conceito do que seja ou não arte não é fácil. Controverso e sem sucesso foram os verdadeiros tratados e teses de estética que discorreram a respeito. Mas, apesar disso, mesmo uma pessoa de conhecimento mediano, de contato mínimo com a cultura urbana ocidental, se questionada sobre exemplos de obras de arte talvez mencionará alguns exemplos de obras ou autores bem conhecidos.                Sabe-se que a Nona Sinfonia de Beethoven, que a Divina Comédia, que a Mona Lisa, que Guernica de Picasso, que o Davi de Michelângelo, que Hamlet, Otelo, Romeu e Julieta e outras obras de Shakespeare, que o filme Casablanca, que o projeto de Brasília de Oscar Niemeyer e Lúcio Costa, que Carinhoso de Pixinguinha, que Garota de Ipanema de Tom Jobim e Vinícius de Moraes, indiscutivelmente, são, além de obras de arte, artes reverenciadas no mundo inteiro. Assim, embora não se consiga expressar com clareza o que venha a ser uma obra de arte autêntica, até porque o conceito depende de aspectos tais como o tempo, a cultura e o próprio indivíduo que aprecia, é certo que se consegue identificar alguns produtos culturais que ajudam a conceber uma mínima idéia do que venha a ser “arte”.               Não obstante o conceito de arte seja muito confundido e empregado erroneamente como sinônimo de cultura e vice-versa, ressalta-se que a palavra cultura é gênero do qual a arte é uma das espécies. E, mais, a palavra cultura merece ser vista como um conjunto representativo de crenças, comportamentos, institutos e valores materiais e espirituais transmitidos normalmente de forma coletiva, contendo traços marcantes de uma sociedade, povo, raça, grupo humano. Por sua vez, de grosso modo, permite-se entabular que arte é manifestação de atividade humana que incita o olhar, a emoção, a imaginação, o raciocínio ou todos os sentidos, membros e órgãos ao mesmo tempo, e causa sentimento e reação, geralmente de admiração, mas que pode despertar, inclusive, apatia ou até aversão dentro do mesmo grupo social, ao mesmo tempo.                  Portanto, do mesmo modo que a arte pode ser, estar e permanecer no meio material empregado para sua composição, no seu modo e maneira de feitura ou manifestação, é certo que a expressão artística pode estar simplesmente exposta sobre ou abaixo da superfície de qualquer suporte material existente, ou que se invente; do mesmo modo que é certo que ela pode ainda estar simplesmente no conteúdo imaterial, não visível, não palpável. Mas, com certeza, estará dotada de infindável energia em estado de hibernação à espreita do sensorial humano.                Daí a dificuldade de se obter um conceito universal único a respeito do que seja uma obra de arte. Daí a dificuldade que muitos têm em conceber como obra de arte um aparelho sanitário de louça, idêntico ao de qualquer banheiro público masculino do mundo, de Marcel Duchamp, ao compará-lo, por exemplo, com as pinturas do teto da Capela Sistina de Michelangelo. Referencial, este, aceito e consagrado, inclusive popularmente, como obra de arte autêntica, embora ambas as obras pertençam a épocas distintas, foram criadas com propósitos completamente diferentes, não percebíveis pela grande maioria do público, e, com certeza, até hoje, a maioria absoluta das pessoas não gostaria de exibir na sala de visita de sua casa um vaso sanitário igual ao de qualquer mictório do mundo, não importando quem tenha sido o autor da obra. 4.2 DAS MUTAÇÕES NA OBRA DE ARTE A história da arte, a televisão, internet, celular, pager, museus, teatros, cinemas, livros, jornais, revistas, cartazes, panfletos. Tudo, enfim, pode ser arte, conter arte, servir de instrumento e de propaganda de arte autêntica ou falsa. E independente dos interesses que possam existir por trás de cada produção e evento, é fato que pessoas que manipulam esses instrumentos selecionam o objeto que lhes convêm, dão o nome que querem, inclusive de arte, e apresentam tais coisas como imperdíveis, atraentes, divertidas, culturais e “autênticas obras de arte”, nas quais induzem que vale a pena se gastar dinheiro e tempo, às vezes risonhamente. No passado os meios materiais de registro e transmissão de arte e sua essência eram limitados. Praticamente resumidos aos inventos do papel, da tela, pintura de afrescos, desenhos nas paredes das cavernas; enfim, confecção de utilitários domésticos com todo tipo de material encontrado na natureza. Hoje, com a evolução dos meios de fixação de idéias, imagens e sons se consegue tentar perpetuar manifestações que no passado eram impossíveis. E com essas mesmas invenções se viaja cada vez mais ao passado para resgatar documentos, obras, registros de manifestações culturais cada vez mais longe. A constatação de que a arte e todos os objetos de manifestação cultural não sobrevivem sem os cuidados do homem sugere outro problema, o do contínuo esforço para a sobrevivência material e imaterial dos objetos artísticos sem interferir na qualidade da obra original, ou interferir o mínimo possível; o que não é tarefa fácil porque o homem é finito e limitados são os meios materiais ainda disponíveis, e toda e qualquer obra humana vive, sofre acidentes, envelhece; e toda vez que se busca a restauração, o retoque, a recuperação, a limpeza, a manutenção, certamente se intervêm na obra original e na evolução natural da obra, por mais que não se deseje. Assim, uma obra pintada, por exemplo, por Rafael entre 1483 e 1520, período em que ele viveu, para um observador no ano de 1520 a obra possui toda uma realidade contextual e material, todo um contato imediato que dificilmente em anos posteriores outros apreciadores terão noção; tal como um apreciador das mesmas obras no ano de 2008, que além de não possuir o frescor da tinta e materiais empregados originalmente, na ocasião, pelo artista, em decorrência das intempéries naturais do tempo, certamente, depois de mais de 450 anos depois de pintada, a obra sofreu acidentes naturais e “ataques” artificiais de técnicos especialistas, buscando, a todo custo, preservar a autenticidade e frescor das cores, brilho, formas do patrimônio artístico deixado pelo genial artista. Então, ante o desgaste “natural” sofrido pela obra de Rafael, que a torna no ano de 2008 “diferente” de quando foi pintada originalmente, no ano de 1520, se poderia afirmar que a obra que se vê no ano de 2008 é falsa?! Não. Certamente que não. O desgaste natural e não-intencional não retira a autenticidade, ineditismo e autoria da obra cuidadosamente retratada, reproduzida, divulgada, documentada, certificada e publicada no mundo inteiro com nome e patronímico certo do genial pintor. 4.3 O FALSO NA ARTE Assim que a sombra invade os céus, o esplendor eclipsado dos tempos que se foram recompõe-se em meu pensamento, inspirando-me cantos dignos de meus antepassados.                 Com estas palavras, contam os antigos que um bardo escocês que vivera no século III da nossa era, Ossian, dá início ao seu poema épico Cantos de Ossian³, poema melancólico e rico em imagens, cantando a guerra e o amor de uma época longínqua, num país de brumas; publicado pela primeira vez em 1760 (?), ao que consta (informação verbal)³. Segundo contam, esse poema teve importância fundamental no período histórico do romantismo, influenciou artistas famosos no fim do século XVIII e início do século XIX. Segundo dizem, a importância que deram a esse poema foi tanta que Herder e Heine o exaltaram; Goethe nele se inspirou; Madame de Staël precisou rever a história da literatura a partir de um sistema construído sobre os ditos poemas ossiânicos; Napoleão levava sempre consigo um exemplar dos tais Cantos; Chateaubriand, Vigny, Musset sofrem profundamente sua influência. Grandes pintores — Ingres, Girodet, Gérard — ilustraram passagens do poema em enormes quadros. A Gruta de Fingal, uma das mais célebres composições de Mendelsohn, teve sua origem nos tais Cantos de Ossian, afirmam. Hilariamente, dizem que tempos depois se descobriu que a pessoa do tal Ossian jamais existiu e que os tais Cantos foram escritos na verdade por um tal de James MacPherson, professor primário escocês da segunda metade do século XVIII, que anteriormente havia publicado em seu próprio nome um poemeto que fora um grande fracasso. Daí a razão dessa última publicação sob outro nome, sob o nome de um personagem fictício que (segundo contam) marcou profundamente a evolução da literatura; e segundo consta ainda, em decorrência do tom mistificado e fantasmagórico dos poemas, no final do mesmo século os tais Cantos já haviam caído no esquecimento. Entretanto, em sendo verdade o relatado, é certo que os tais Cantos corresponderam perfeitamente a uma sensibilidade que a época pediu. A tal ponto que, embora desde o início alguns céticos desconfiassem da malandragem, acreditou-se em Ossian porque o momento talvez precisasse dele pelas mais variadas razões, dentre elas, o fato de que as culturas do norte passariam a ter seu grande poeta-ícone, até então inexistente, através do que Ossian representava,fazendo, assim, frente à civilização mediterrânea que tinha seu grande e consagrado poeta: Homero. ___________­__________ 3 FAYARD, A. Manifestação em palestra sobre L’art et la vie (A Arte e a vida), proferida em Paris, 1966 (?). De toda sorte, é certo que desse episódio restou para a história a lição de como conseguir enganar os espíritos mais brilhantes, que, num certo sentido e dado momento, “pediram” para ser enganados, “desejaram” acreditar no bardo escocês, confiaram na autenticidade dos poemas, garantiram a autenticidade dos poemas, até provas em contrário (informação verbal)4. O assunto sobre falsificações sempre despertou grande curiosidade. A habilidade em enganar, o poder do ilusionismo, a perícia na imitação, fazem do falsário um personagem maroto, capaz de prodígios desabituais, capaz de rir nas barbas dos especialistas, e célebres são os falsos bronzes da Renascença, de autoria de Dossena e Bastianini. Célebres, os quadros contemporâneos de Elmyr de Hory — que Orson Wells mostrou desenhando um "Matisse de 1936" em seu notável filme F for Fake (informação verbal)5. Famoso também foi o fato corrido durante a Segunda Guerra Mundial, na Alemanha, no qual foram vendidas telas desconhecidas de Vermeer: pintor genial holandês do século XVII que fizera poucas obras, cuja descoberta de novas obras tinha uma grande importância para a história da arte. Assim, terminada a guerra, processaram o homem que encontrara e vendera os quadros para os alemães, pois se tratava de alienação de bens da cultura nacional, de alta traição, que inclusive sujeitava o vendedor à pena e morte. Assim, diante de tão graves acusações o réu, Van Meergeren, prefere confessar: “os Vermeer eram falsos e haviam sido pintados por ele”. Incrédulos, no começo, peritos, críticos, especialistas, conservadores, todos foram unânimes em afirmar a autenticidade dos quadros, dizendo que Van Meergeren, premido pela situação que poderia levá-lo a morte, tentava uma saída menos fatal. Mas, Van Meergeren, na prisão, pede telas e tintas, e, na prisão, produz um Vermeer espantosamente "autêntico" (informação verbal)6. ___________­__________ 4 FAYARD, A. Manifestação em palestra sobre L’art et la vie (A Arte e a vida), proferida em Paris, 1966 (?). 5 FAYARD, A. Manifestação em palestra sobre L’art et la vie (A Arte e a vida), proferida em Paris, 1966 (?).                Bernard Berenson, um dos mais célebres peritos do Século XIX [?], dizia ironicamente que “noventa por cento das obras que se encontram em museus tradicionais são falsas”. Frase de efeito, exagerada, mas que traduz um fundo de verdade. Não só porque restaurações duvidosas muitas vezes "falsificaram" os quadros. E nem se fale nas mistificações de pequeno porte, miseráveis, que ocupam e fazem viver antiquários inescrupulosos no mundo inteiro. Estas não vão nem para os museus (informação verbal)7.        Por certo, os quadros de Leonardo ou Rembrandt fazem deles gênios. Conseqüentemente, um quadro, qualquer quadro, de Leonardo ou Rembrandt, é tomado como um quadro genial. Uma coleção que possua um Rembrandt tem prestígio — mais do que se possuísse apenas um "anônimo holandês do século XVIII", ou um "discípulo de Rembrandt". Se a obra não é assinada, se não há documentos de época que confirmem a autoria do pintor, ela precisa da confirmação de especialistas que certifiquem sua autenticidade. Como se pode imaginar, esses especialistas, inclusive hoje, raramente estão de acordo. Mas, obtendo-se o assentimento de uma autoridade de peso ou a concordância de uma maioria, cola-se, ao lado do quadro a etiqueta: "atribuído a Rembrandt". Um conservador de museu, por exemplo, está, no entanto, convencido de que o quadro é de Rembrandt e, em sã consciência, retira o "atribuído a". E vai além: o quadro é de autoria duvidosa, mas o amor pelo seu museu faz com que o colecionador convicto, afirme sem hesitação a autenticidade. Ou ele próprio faz a peritagem, e dá foros de nobreza ao seu acervo, acrescentando um Caravaggio, um Antonello della Messina.  __________­__________ 6 FAYARD, A. Manifestação em palestra sobre L’art et la vie (A Arte e a vida), proferida em Paris, 1966 (?). 7 FAYARD, A. Manifestação em palestra sobre L’art et la vie (A Arte e a vida), proferida em Paris, 1966 (?).              Conta-se que certo colecionador brasileiro, competente e apaixonado pela sua coleção, descobriu entre seus quadros autorias que ele afirmava célebres. E questionado, certa feita, sobre a certeza de que uma determinada obra era autêntica, se pertencia a determinado pintor genial, respondeu, candidamente: "Porquê? Não parece?".   Para tentativa de tranquilização geral, há muita competência e saber sério no mundo das artes. Peritos, historiadores, críticos, marchand, galerista, leiloeiro, empresário cultural, produtor, editor, e, atualmente, até advogados, contribuem para o seu enriquecimento. Prova disso reside no fato de que a Vênus de Dresde de Giorgione foi atribuída inicialmente a um pintor secundário. No entanto, ela só se tornou o grande quadro que se conhece graças ao arguto connaisseur Morelli, que descobriu nela a mão do mestre e autêntico feitor.    Por outro lado, sabe-se que o pintor desconhecido de hoje poderá ser o mestre valorizado de amanhã. Sabe-se, cinicamente, que a morte de um pintor provoca a rarefação da oferta, e, portanto, o aumento do preço de seus quadros: compra-se hoje, barato, a obra cara de amanhã. Assim, o artista reduz-se à sua assinatura, endosso de investimento seguro, garantia do bom negócio. O quadro não é mais arte: tornou-se uma convenção financeira. E a prosperidade da pintura pode ser constatada facilmente no passado por um fato simples: os únicos artistas verdadeiramente milionários foram os pintores Picasso, Braque ou Matisse, este inclusive era rico advogado em Paris e comprou a única pintura que Vincent van Gogh conseguiu vender na vida; embora hoje os milionários sejam os músicos que tocam nas “micarês” do carnaval na Bahia.   Ainda hoje, o marchand todo-poderoso lança o pintor internacionalmente e controla sua posição no mercado, estocando as obras, diminuindo a oferta, aguardando a alta de preços, vendendo no momento estratégico, pressionando de mil maneiras os meios de valorização. No caso de um pintor morto, por exemplo, a valorização pode efetuar-se através do sistema de “AUTENTICAÇÃO”: o marchand compra um quadro não assinado que poderia ser, digamos, um Portinari. Tentará obter de uma "autoridade competente" — especialistas, peritos, ou mesmo pessoas da família, próximos do pintor — o reconhecimento oficial de que a tela é realmente de Portinari, para que seu preço aumente consideravelmente. Nesse modo de proceder, muita malandragem, muita falsificação, muita falcatrua entra em jogo. Há também o crítico que celebra, para a galeria "amiga", este ou aquele artista; há a reportagem em revistas, especializadas ou não. Há a exposição em locais culturalmente prestigiosos, que por "contaminação" valorizam o artista. Por esses meios o pintor beneficia-se de uma notável publicidade "cultural", indireta, mas eficaz. Por sua vez, muitos marchands, apaixonados sinceros pela pintura, tiveram e tem um papel cultural importante e digno de respeito, confiando em artistas desconhecidos e incompreendidos, ajudando-os a se imporem ao público. Mas, nessa mescla complexa de dinheiro e cultura, o princípio mesmo da "incompreensão" — isto é, das novas formas de arte em luta contra as já estabelecidas — participa do circuito econômico. Do mesmo modo, os pintores mudam de "fases". Nunca, na história da arte, houve tão grande número de arte sendo copiada clandestinamente pela internet sem qualquer respeito ou pagamento de direitos aos autores criadores; nunca houve tão grande número de artistas que modificam, sucessivamente, seus modos de pintar, seus estilos. Isso também é compreensível: a necessidade de acompanhar o que está sendo feito e produzido no mundo globalizado; também o colecionador tem que ser estimulado para novas compras — as fases, os movimentos e experimentações novos existem para atraí-lo. E tudo isso é bem triste. Mas, não se pode esquecer que esse sistema, matreiro, cobiçoso, por vezes desprezível e nos limites da desonestidade, alimenta e faz a cultura sobreviver com grande vigor. Úteis, indispensáveis na formação de uma cultura visual e sonora, as técnicas de reprodução digital hoje já não são suficientes. Não é apenas necessário se ter acesso às artes pelos métodos atuais de CDs, internet, MP3, televisão; é necessário também voltar a freqüentar museus, concertos, teatros, cinemas, exposições, shows. É necessário visitar monumentos. É necessário poder ler e ter acesso aos locais de arte a preços populares, ou mesmo de graça. Assim, num país como o Brasil, tem-se que acrescentar ao esforço que a obra, pela sua complexidade, exige, o esforço de alcançar concreta, materialmente, a produção artística para se poder conseguir detectar o falso daquilo que é autêntico. E esse esforço coloca de per si o problema, não mais individual, mas social, do direito à obra autêntica e do respeito ao autor que muitas vezes se vê perdido, sem saber a quem recorrer para sobreviver em meio a tanta “pirataria” na rede mundial de computadores.                 De toda sorte, é fato que muitos catálogos precisos foram estabelecidos graças ao esforço e à erudição imensa de “grandes especialistas”. Mas é preciso não esquecer que o princípio da atribuição repousa sobre a incerteza, e que a decisão definitiva pode depender, em última análise, de um ato de “autoridade”. Por isso, confia-se no “especialista” por falta de opção, na falta de outros meios e documentos de prova, sabendo-se que, a todo instante, corre-se o risco de se engolir gato por lebre; sabendo-se que a fraude e falta de competência não é privilégio do universo da arte; sabendo-se que todos os dias os meios de comunicação anunciam controvérsias entre médicos, doutores, sabedores, fazedores de arte e peritos; sabendo que todos os dias tribunais são instados a se pronunciar sobre autenticidade e que, apesar de tudo, artistas de incontestável qualidade existiram, existem e sempre existirão. Assim, seja por mero deleite e modismo ditado pela elite cultural, seja pelo comodismo geral reinante, o fato é que existem tais profissionais-instrumentos que costumam publicar “o que é ou não arte autêntica”; e que embora sofram imensa resistência quanto às suas indicações sobre o que seja ou não arte autêntica, o fato é que “pacificamente” suas opiniões são aceitas, até porque o tempo é ótimo juiz de todas as coisas e a morte solve, ou resolve, tudo; além disso, o Judiciário existe para dizer do direito quando se expõe o fato. CAPÍTULO 5 DA PROVA DE AUTENTICIDADE DE OBRA INTELECTUAL 5.1 A IMPORTÂNCIA DO REGISTRO DE CRIAÇÕES E SEUS EFEITOS                 Geralmente quando se deseja preservar o original de um documento utiliza-se a cópia desse documento, visto que possui normalmente o mesmo valor probante que o original, até mesmo com a dispensa de sua autenticação em alguns casos. Noutras situações, quando se necessita da pública forma de autenticação, o oficial cartorário ou órgão autenticador, opõe na cópia do documento, certificado na sua presença, o carimbo com os dizeres “confere com o original”.                Assim, o fato da cópia apresentada conferir formalmente com a aparência do documento original apresentados na mesma ocasião, costuma se acreditar no teor do documento copiado, na aparência idêntica à do documento original. No entanto, desse ato de atestar, desse veloz certificar, dessa rápida conferência não se pode concluir que o teor material do documento apresentado como original é autêntico, bom, verdadeiro e inolvidável porque descabe ao oficial do cartório o exame de mérito pericial dos documentos levados à sua presença ante o fato do oficial cartorário, que autentica, não ser especialista no assunto tratado no dito documento, infelizmente. Portanto, ele não pode ser responsabilizado pela eventual e não-grosseira falsificação do documento original e, conseqüentemente, ele não pode dar garantia de veracidade para a cópia, apesar de confirmada e reconhecida por oficial com fé pública. Por isso, do mesmo que o registro e reconhecimento cartorário, o registro autoral – feito também pela Biblioteca Nacional – tem a finalidade de declarar por instrumento público o direito que o autor tem quanto ao que registrou e do modo como o registrou. Afinal, o serventuário da Biblioteca Nacional não pode analisar o conteúdo de uma obra levada a registro ou recusá-lo por ser parecida com outra anterior. Mas, em todo caso, o registro na Biblioteca Nacional goza de fé pública, o que quer dizer que, se um dia alguém alegar que um texto foi alterado sem autorização do autor, a certidão do órgão é uma ótima prova não só da anterioridade do registro.            Por outro lado, ao mesmo tempo em que é ótima ferramenta de divulgação e democratização de arte e cultura, a internet não representa nenhuma mudança nos direitos autorais, principalmente em termos de ganho financeiro para os autores: todo livro, toda melodia, todo poema, toda arte visual plástica, toda obra, enfim, que todo mundo sabe que foi feita por outro, que tem dono, tem de ser usada com respeito ao conteúdo e à integridade, e se o dono o consentir. O QUE É RESPEITAR? É não modificar a obra, nem fazer modificações que alterem o pensamento de seu criador, quando se utilizar da obra em nome dele. É sempre mencionar, quando usar parte da obra alheia, o nome do autor e local de onde se retirou o trecho. É, também, não usar ou comercializar nada que não lhe pertença, sem pedir a devida e necessária autorização da pessoa física que a criou, ou da jurídica que adquiriu por contrato a condição de autor (o que, juridicamente, se chama de titularidade). A regra vale para qualquer mídia, e a internet é só mais uma (nova) mídia que facilita a divulgação da arte.                   Por outro lado, seguindo a tradição de países que possuem a base da cultura jurídica calcada no direito romano, a lei autoral brasileira, ao mesmo tempo em que facultou ao cidadão o registro de obra literária, artística, ou científica (art. 18), não pressionou o Estado a viabilizar os meios competentes “a defesa da integridade e autoria de obra caída em domínio público”, conforme determina o § 2º do art. 24. Deixando, por isso mesmo, sem controle um conjunto indeterminado de bens culturais de valor incalculável, dos quais não se sabe se já caíram em domínio público, ou os usos que se verificam no cotidiano não passam de crimes de “pirataria”.                      Importa lembrar que, embora de uma maneira geral e de acesso popular, nenhum registro, certificação ou declaração emitidos sobre a face do planeta terra estejam completamente imunes à fraude e falsificações, é inconteste o fato de que os registros são indispensáveis inclusive para co-existência, confiança e credibilidade social nas suas próprias instituições, bem como controle, organização e progresso dos próprios organismos de proteção aos direitos autorais. Importa lembrar, também, que o descontrole, a bagunça, a desordem só interessam ao caos e aos que só conseguem sobreviver em meio ao fomento do ilícito, do injusto e antidemocrático. Daí, dizer que o registro de um apartamento ou marca associam uma pessoa ao bem pelo simples instituto da propriedade e exibição dos respectivos documentos, e que esse mero ato de exibição tem o poder de afastar qualquer pretensão à sua propriedade, ou eventual direito sobre ela, e, ao mesmo tempo, negar que o registro de obra de obra intelectual (bem móvel) possua o mesmo valor probante que os citados bens imóveis, é menosprezar o basilar princípio da veracidade de “até prova em contrário”, contido intrinsecamente em todo e qualquer documento público ou particular que gozam, per si, de presunção juris tantum (de direito até que se prove o contrário) e não juris et de jure (de direito e por direito) que não admite prova em contrário, jamais. Do mesmo modo que, para ser considerado como proprietário de um veiculo automotor (bem móvel) a lei exige, ad cautelam, como meio de prova imediato, o registro de transferência junto ao Departamento de Trânsito, sem, contudo, negar ao suposto proprietário os meios de prova admitidos em direito, também é fato que a lei faculta, com a mesma amplitude e validade, ao autor o registro de suas criações, por cautela, e que tal registro serve inclusive como prova pré-constituída contra todos; prova de identidade sobre a obra em si e sua autoria, conforme o caso, e até prova em contrário a ser robustamente ofertada por quem se ache aviltado.               De fato, a autoria se prova com o fato da criação e outros meios atinentes, inclusive por intermédio da prostituta das provas, como é o caso da prova testemunhal, assim cognominada no direito universal; e de fato, com raríssimas exceções, todos os meios só adquirem valor inconteste no âmbito judicial, e após o trânsito em julgado da respectiva sentença. Assim, sendo certo que a providência de registro de obras intelectuais criadas não é dispensável, como falam alguns poucos fomentando a custódia da ignorância, mas que em verdade se trata de uma faculdade concedida na lei aos autores sobre suas criações autênticas, também é mais que certo que é culpa não prever o que facilmente pode acontecer; que o direito nasce do fato, que a ninguém é dado alegar a ignorância da lei, que a presunção cede à verdade, que as palavras voam e os escritos permanecem, que o direito não socorre e não ajuda aos que dormem ou negligenciam em sua defesa.                 Dizer que a falta de registro visa a “proteção do verdadeiro autor” contra espertalhões que, antieticamente, se auto-intitulam criadores autênticos não chega sequer a ser meia verdade, o que equivale bem mais que uma mentira inteira.               Como dito, a prova de autenticidade de obra intelectual e autoria é feita em juízo, e mesmo depois de provado em juízo, como não existem fiscais suficientes no Estado inclusive em matéria autoral, cada um é obrigado a ser fiscal de seus próprios interesses, contra tudo e contra todos, resultando disso que não há garantias contra imitadores, plagiadores e falsários, do mesmo modo que é certo que a única garantia que se tem desde que se nasce é que um dia se sucumbirá. Dizer, por outro lado, que a providência de registro não traz serventia é menosprezar a inteligência e capacidade dos demais; é afirmar que de nada vale o próprio registro de nascimento, sua cédula de identidade, seu título eleitoral, registros, documentos e certificados particulares, inclusive os escolares e acadêmicos, os atestados de vida e idoneidade moral; é induzir o outro em erro; é negar os benefícios que poderão advir no futuro em caso de eventual disputa judicial que recaia sobre autoria, autenticidade, originalidade, ineditismo, derivação, edição, produção, contrafação e muitos outros, porque ao autor incumbe provar o fato constitutivo de seu direito, e ao réu incumbe provar os fatos impeditivos, modificativos ou extintivos do direito do autor; essa é a regra e não a exceção (arts. 333, I e II, CPC). 5.2 DO REGISTRO DE MARCAS E PATENTES Diverso do tratamento dado às obras intelectuais protegidas pela Lei nº 9.610/98 (Lei de Direitos Autorais), a Lei nº 9.279/96 regula direitos e obrigações relativos à propriedade industrial e dispõe sobre marcas e patentes.               Patente é certificado que garante a autoria de um invento ou modelo de utilidade. Marca é sinal visualmente perceptível, criada para caracterizar e distinguir produtos e serviços oferecidos ao público consumidor; podendo ser constituída por expressões gráficas, figuras ou pela união desses dois elementos, regulados e conferidos nos termos da Lei da Propriedade Industrial. A propriedade industrial (outra face da chamada propriedade intelectual embora regulada por lei específica) está baseada na exclusividade das marcas e patentes, por um tempo diferente que o tempo da proteção autoral (patentes se protegem por vinte anos, e o registro de marcas, apesar dos dez anos de que fala a lei, pode ser renovado indefinidamente). Objetiva distinguir produtos de outros idênticos ou assemelhados, e funciona por classe de atividade, protegendo o consumidor do erro ou do engano na compra, evitando que adquira gato por lebre. E objetiva, também, a proteção do fabricante ou do comerciante contra a concorrência desleal. No campo da propriedade industrial, de regra, pela lei, vigora o princípio da formalidade: quem exibe o certificado de registro de uma marca ou o certificado de patente é titular de todos os direitos relacionados ao objeto lá descrito, na classe de atividade escolhida, até prova em contrário. Embora quem tenha o certificado de registro de marca ou patente tenha mera expectativa de direito; mas, exibe "melhor direito" do que aquele que não o possui, tal como se tivesse registrado alguma obra intelectual protegida na Lei de Direito Autoral. O autor de uma invenção ou o desenhista que cria um logotipo (pessoas físicas), pela lei PRESUMEM-SE autores autênticos ATÉ PROVA EM CONTRÁRIO, e podem reivindicar a patente ou o registro; mas, como a manutenção do título depende da prova de uso do invento ou da marca sob pena de caducidade, o titular do direito passa a ser normalmente a pessoa jurídica que industrializa o objeto ou utiliza comercialmente a marca ou desenho, por meio de licenças outorgadas pelos inventores/desenhistas/criadores, devidamente averbadas à margem do certificado expedido pela autarquia federal.                Por último, a título de esclarecimento, não se confunda invenção com descoberta. Esta está onde sempre esteve, na natureza, sendo apenas revelada aos homens de tempos e tempos. Já a invenção reside na criação de alguma coisa tecnicamente nova, até então inexistente. 5.3 DO REGISTRO DE OBRAS INTELECTUAIS NA LEI DE DIREITO AUTORAL De plano, quanto ao registro de obas intelectuais, a lei autoral assegura proteção aos direitos independente de qualquer registro. Mas, a autenticidade de uma obra intelectual faz parte dos direitos morais do autor em relação à sua criação e é inalienável, irrenunciável, intransmissível e inconfundível; do contrário não poderia ser chamada, sequer, autêntica. Conseqüente natural do processo criativo, a autenticidade é um dos direitos morais intrínsecos à personalidade que existe a partir do ato criador do ser humano em vida. É intransmissível porque inerente à própria pessoa humana. É inseparável da pessoa humana e é irrenunciável durante a vida ou mesmo depois da morte.                   A autenticidade é um direito moral indisponível porque não pode ser transferida, vendida ou doada, e apenas seu titular pode fruir. É irrenunciável porque sem ela a própria personalidade desapareceria. É inexpropriável porque nem mesmo o Estado pode separá-lo do indivíduo criador. É imprescritível porque não se adquire ou se extingue pelo não uso; perdura pelo tempo que perdurar, no mínimo, a MEMÓRIA e qualquer registro de existência da obra.               Por isso, embora a lei não tenha premiado a autenticidade de obras intelectuais dentre seu rol de definições, deve-se entender que se transmitem aos sucessores e a qualquer outra pessoa detentora da obra, ou não, mas que demonstre legítimo interesse, o direito moral de reivindicar, a qualquer tempo, o certificado de autenticidade de obra; direito que tem o legítimo interessado de ter o nome, sinal, marca, forma de expressão do autor identificados, indicados, mostrados, evidenciados e anunciados, quando utilizam, por qualquer meio ou modo, a obra que algum autor criou legitimamente.             Em verdade, é o direito que tem o interessado de assegurar a integridade física da obra e moral do autor, além da integridade moral dele (interessado) no caso de ser detentor da obra; é o direito que tem o interessado de exigir reparação pela ofensa física suportada pelo mau uso da obra e moral suportada diretamente pelo autor da obra, com conseqüências diretas para ele, interessado, enquanto detentor da obra, na hipótese de violação do direito moral do autor. De fato, a autenticidade independe de registro formal para a existência porque a autenticidade é inerente a verdade da união indissolúvel e continuada entre criador e criatura; porque a autenticidade é a genética da obra humana que revela sua autoria hereditária; porque a autenticidade está sempre presente em toda obra humana originalmente criada, e ultrapassa os limites da existência física da própria obra criada; porque toda obra originalmente criada tem sua autoria autêntica, que pode ser certificada ou não por algum meio ou processo; porque toda obra criada originalmente está integralmente contida dentro da obra autêntica, e desta não se desvincula jamais, mesmo que nunca se consiga saber quem foi seu autor; porque a autenticidade está, e pode ser reconhecida, também, na maioria das obras derivadas que existem, mas jamais uma obra derivada (resultante) será uma obra original; porque a autenticidade é verbo de ligação atemporal que associa universalmente a criação do infronteiriço espírito humano à pobreza finita do meio material. Ante o exposto, sem dúvida, para viabilizar o reconhecimento de autenticidade de obra post mortem de seu criador, a providência tempestiva do registro resulta, per si, um certificado e meio de prova, tal qual sucede com as marcas e patentes reguladas pela lei da propriedade industrial; objeto, como é, sujeito à evidência da prova material em contrário. Assim, no Título II, no Capítulo III, Do Registro das Obras Intelectuais, a lei traz os seguintes dispositivos, verbis: Art. 18. A proteção aos direitos de que trata esta Lei INDEPENDE de registro. Art. 19. É FACULTADO ao autor registrar a sua obra no órgão público definido no caput e no § 1º do art. 17 da Lei nº 5.988, de 14 de dezembro de 1973. Art. 20. Para os serviços de registro previstos nesta Lei será cobrada retribuição, cujo valor e processo de recolhimento serão estabelecidos por ato do titular do órgão da administração pública federal a que estiver vinculado o registro das obras intelectuais. Art. 21. Os serviços de registro de que trata esta Lei serão organizados conforme preceitua o § 2º do art. 17 da Lei nº 5.988, de 14 de dezembro de 1973. (Sublinha-se, negrita-se e destaca-se). Por sua vez, embora a Lei nº 5.988, mencionada nos arts. 19 e 21 acima, tenha sido expressamente revogada pelo último artigo da vigente lei sobre direitos autorais (art. 115), neste mesmo dispositivo revogador a lei excetua da revogação, dentre outros, o art. 17 e seus §§ 1º e 2º, os quais dispõem ipsis litteris: DO REGISTRO DAS OBRAS INTELECTUAIS Art. 17. Para segurança de seus direitos, o autor da obra intelectual PODERÁ registrá-la, conforme sua natureza, na Biblioteca Nacional, na Escola de Música, na Escola de Belas Artes da Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, no Instituto Nacional do Cinema, ou no Conselho Federal de Engenharia, Arquitetura e Agronomia. § 1º Se a obra for de natureza que comporte registro em mais de um desses órgãos, deverá ser registrada naquele com que tiver maior afinidade. § 2º O Poder Executivo, mediante decreto, poderá, a qualquer tempo, reorganizar os serviços de registro, conferindo a outros órgãos as atribuições a que se refere este artigo. (Sublinha-se, negrita-se e destaca-se). Ante o exposto, deflui-se que o registro de obras intelectuais, pela lei, é uma faculdade concedida ao autor, ou seja, é uma opção voluntária e um dos principais meios de prova na eventual hipótese de dúvidas que possam recair sobre autoria e autenticidade de obras. Não se podendo admitir jamais a interpretação estrita de que o registro é desnecessário, inútil, dispensável, obsoleto, escusável. Além disso, o registro serve, inclusive, como prova de anterioridade em relação à obra idêntica que venha a ser publicada posteriormente por terceiros. Serve, ainda, na menor das conseqüências, para se deixar gravado nos anais da história a contribuição individual que se deixou para a cultura humana sem maiores encargos ou dívidas a saldar. 5.4 DOS MEIOS DE PROVA EM DIREITO                 Em linhas gerais, prova é a demonstração da verdade de um fato pelos diversos meios admitidos pela lei, e todos os meios de provas moralmente legítimos são hábeis para auxiliar e elucidar a verdade dos fatos, ainda que não previstos na lei, conforme consta na Constituição Federal em seu art. 5º, incisos LV e LVI, verbis: Art. 5º {...] LV – aos litigantes, em processo judicial ou administrativo, e aos acusados em geral são assegurados o contraditório e a ampla defesa, com os meios e recursos a ele inerentes; LVI – são inadmissíveis, no processo, as provas obtidas por meios ilícitos; [...] No Código Civil, dos arts. 212 ao 232, há um título especialmente dedicado ao assunto da prova, embora o tema esteja ligado à área processual. No Código de Processo Civil consta um capítulo inteiro sobre provas entre os arts. 332 a 443. Segundo este Código, cada prova tem um procedimento especial para que possa ser produzida, e, como regra geral, admite as seguintes provas: a) depoimento pessoal das partes; b) interrogatório das partes; c) confissão judicial ou extrajudicial; d) prova documental; e) exibição de coisa; f) prova testemunhal; g) acareações; h) prova pericial; i) inspeção judicial. Além das provas citadas acima, outras são admitidas desde que sejam morais ou legítimas, como os indícios, as presunções e as provas emprestadas de outros processos. Por sua vez, a ninguém é permitido eximir-se de colaborar com o Poder Judiciário na busca da verdade, embora há casos especiais em que não se pode exigir que se fale tudo o que sabe, e até mesmo terceiros, que não integram a relação processual, estão sujeitos ao dever de colaboração, sendo obrigados informar ao juiz sobre os fatos e circunstâncias de que tenham conhecimento e exibir documentos ou coisa que esteja em seu poder.                  Ressalta-se também que para a perpétua memória das coisas, embora a prova deva ser produzida processualmente, no momento adequado, por cautela, a produção das provas pode ser antecipada, como procedimento independente de qualquer outro processo principal, de forma preventiva. Pode ser também preparatória, de forma cautelar, como procedimento antecipado a um processo principal, para a conservação de um direito que será objeto de uma ação principal, que será proposta tão logo se obtenha a prova. Podendo a prova ser ainda produzida de forma incidental, no curso de um processo principal, quando não se pode aguardar o momento específico para sua produção, como no caso da testemunha que, por motivos de saúde, viagem a local distante ou outra razão não possa comparecer à audiência que for designada no futuro.                 Por último, salienta-se que o juiz apreciará livremente a prova, atendendo aos fatos e circunstâncias constantes dos autos, ainda que não alegados pelas partes; mas deverá indicar os motivos que lhe formaram o convencimento, na sentença. CONSIDERAÇÕES FINAIS Completam-se mais de dez anos de vigência da lei que regula entre nós os direitos de autor e os que lhes são conexos e a simples idade não é por si fator de questionamentos, mas a questão é muito maior e vai bem mais além. Nunca se falou tanto em direitos autorais no Brasil como nos últimos cinco, seis anos, graças à elevação das obras protegidas pela propriedade intelectual à categoria dos bens comercialmente relevantes. A virtualização e a digitalização das comunicações deram a tônica aos direitos autorais. Muito embora a lei se aplique a qualquer mídia, a verdade é que a internet quase fez implodir o que a máquina de imprensa de Gutenberg fez surgir. Sendo a fiscalização dos direitos autorais um dos pilares do sistema, a dificuldade de implementá-la no mundo digital levou a crises anunciadas na indústria, principalmente a fonográfica. Enquanto a nova lei proibiu a cópia privada de obra protegida, a mídia digital a facilita com os simples toques de dedos, Ctrl +c e Ctrl+v. O grande saldo desses dez anos, de fato, ficou por conta do que a lei não disse: omitiu a autenticidade; do que a lei não assumiu: a importância do registro de obras intelectuais; do que ela não regulou: o interesse público existente nos direitos autorais, o acesso da sociedade ao conhecimento verossímil, à informação, à cultura daquilo que o legislador, através da lei, considera que deve e merece ser protegido, isto é, do que se permite o uso público somente após autorização dos titulares. Então, abordar autenticidade de obras intelectuais protegidas nesse contexto é muito oportuno. Assim, na abordagem do conteúdo em foco, ateve-se a uma reflexão sobre o objeto intelectual em constante mutação e seu eterno elo de ligação com seu criador. Todas as vezes que empregada a palavra “autenticidade”, poder-se-ia tê-la substituído sem dificuldades pelas expressões “atribui-se a” ou “pertence a”, até prova em contrário; isto é, nunca tomou-se no sentido estático de “incontestável” ex lege (de acordo com a lei), mas ad perpetuam rei memoriam (para que se perpetue a prova de um fato). Daí a facilidade de situar plasticamente a “autenticidade” de obras intelectuais a partir do próprio espelho que tutela os direitos autorais: Lei nº 9.610. Desse modo, entre muitas outras coisas, não se tocou nos conceitos-chave de obra original, obra inédita e derivada, definidos na lei, com os quais, muitas vezes, a autenticidade é confundida. Preferiu-se simplesmente constatar a complexidade do objeto autêntico, que é o cordão umbilical e elo de ligação criador-criatura, e respeitá-lo.                Abandonou-se uma perspectiva histórica tanto no que concerne à noção de arte (o que significaria fazer uma história da estética), quanto à própria evolução dos objetos artísticos e sua autenticidade (o que significaria fazer uma história da arte autêntica). Também não se preocupou com uma história do gosto, com uma história da crítica, com a história e evolução do direito autoral; focou-se a abordagem da autenticidade de obras no âmbito do Direito Autoral nos últimos dez anos, a partir de 19 de fevereiro de 1998, data da publicação da vigente Lei de Direitos Autorais. Assim, cercado e exposto o tema a ser abordado, o conteúdo levou a diversas inferências teleológicas que, selecionadas em razão de concisão e silogismo dialético, resultaram nas seguintes premissas que podem ser certificadas no esquema gráfico que se segue:                                                                                                                                                       1) Diz-se obra intelectual autêntica a que é do autor a quem se atribui; a que se pode dar fé; a fidedigna; a que goza de presunção juris tantum (de direito até que se prove o contrário); 2) a autenticidade de uma obra intelectual faz parte dos direitos morais do autor em relação à sua criação e é inalienável, irrenunciável, intransmissível e inconfundível; do contrário não poderia ser chamada, sequer, autêntica; 3) a autenticidade de uma obra intelectual tem prazo de validade indeterminado e não perece com o desaparecimento ou destruição física da própria obra a que se refere; mas, vai bem mais além, dura, indefinidamente, pelo tempo que perdurar a memória da existência da própria obra, através de qualquer meio ou suporte que exista ou que se invente; 4) a autenticidade é inerente a verdade da união indissolúvel e continuada entre criador e criatura; 5) a autenticidade é a genética da obra humana que revela sua autoria hereditária; 6) a autenticidade está sempre presente em toda obra humana originalmente criada e ultrapassa os limites da existência física da própria obra criada; 7) toda obra originalmente criada tem sua autoria autêntica, que pode ser certificada ou não por algum meio ou processo; 8) toda obra original é uma obra autêntica; 9) nem toda obra autêntica é original; 10) toda obra original está integralmente contida na obra autêntica, e desta não se desvincula jamais, mesmo que não se consiga detectar o autor de sua criação; 11) a autenticidade está, e pode ser reconhecida, também, em muitas obras derivadas, mas jamais uma obra derivada será uma obra original porque uma obra derivada nasce de uma obra original e com esta não se confunde; 12) nem toda obra derivada é autêntica, e nem toda obra autêntica é derivada, porque nem sempre se consegue determinar a autoria de obra derivada; 13) nenhuma obra derivada é original e vice-versa; 14) a autenticidade é verbo de ligação atemporal que associa universalmente a criação do infronteiriço espírito humano à pobreza finita do meio material; 15) arte é manifestação de atividade humana que incita o olhar, a emoção, a imaginação, o raciocínio ou todos os sentidos, membros e órgãos ao mesmo tempo, e causa sentimento e reação geralmente de admiração, mas que pode despertar inclusive apatia ou até aversão dentro do mesmo grupo social, ao mesmo tempo. Sem dúvida, simples leitura dos silogismos acima pode não ser suficiente a vislumbrar o entendimento das conclusões as quais se chegou sobre a “autenticidade” de obras intelectuais, para suporte ao Direito Autoral forense. Então, a fim melhor explicitar as premissas mencionadas, que norteiam a autenticidade de obras intelectuais, o Apêndice abaixo traz uma Ilustração sobre a autenticidade de obras intelectuais, anexo, na qual partiu-se dos conceitos de obra originária e obra derivada, já descritos na lei e freqüentemente confundidos com o conceito de obra autêntica, para, então, intuir-se o que é obra autêntica e sua importância. Sem dúvida, muito pode ser feito para melhorar. Mas é exatamente a abertura da matéria a discussões em momentos como este que o fato novo trará contribuições positivas à sociedade e ao Parlamento; afinal, a lei existe para servir à sociedade, e não o contrário. 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Description March 21, 1961 LSON 2,975,680 G. A. W] SEMIAUTOMATIC PISTOL WITH BREECH BLOCK FORWARD OF MAGAZINE CHAMBER Filed April 22, 1958 7 Sheets-Sheet 1 I NVENTOR. 61 50/965 4 W/ASO/V i Arrow/16. March 21, 1961 G. A. WILSON 2,975 6 SEMIAUTOMATIC PISTOL WITH BREECH BLOCK FORWARD OF MAGAZINE CHAMBER 7 Sheets-Sheet 3 Filed April 22, 1958 INVENTOR. 650/965 .4//LO/V ATIQGA/EXI, March 21, 1961 G. A WILSON SEMIAUTOMATIC PISTOL WITH BREECH BLOCK FORWARD OF MAGAZINE CHAMBER 7 Sheets-Sheet 4 Filed April 22, 1958 March 21, 1961 G, A. WILSON SEMIAUTOMATIC PISTOL WITH BREECH BLOCK FORWARD OF MAGAZINE CHAMBER Filed April 22, 1958 7 Sheets-Sheet 5 INVENTOR. GL UFGE /4. W/ZSO/V BY fl zi w March 21, 1961 G. A. WILSON SEMIAUTOMATIC PISTOL WITH BREECI-I BLOCK FORWARD OF MAGAZINE CHAMBER 7 Sheets-Sheet 6 Filed April 22, 1958 INVENTOR. 60/P6 A, W/L 50 BY 4 I M M76? ,4 from/5U. March 21, 1961 G. A. WILSON 2,975,680 SEMIAUTOMATIC PISTOL WITH BREECH BLOCK FORWARD OF MAGAZINE CHAMBER 7 Sheets-Sheet 7 Filed April 22, 1958 INVENTOR. GEOFGL W/LSO/V 7% 2,975,680 Patented Mar. 21, 1961 SEMIAUTOMATIC PISTOL WITH BREECH BLOCK FORWARD F MAGAZINE CHAMBER George A. Wilson, War Admiral Lane, RD. 26, Media, Pa. Filed Apr. 22, 1958, Ser. No. 730,231 3 Claims. (Cl. 89-196) The present invention relates to semiautomatic pistols and is concerned primarily with a novel design which provides for the user grasping the handle so as to provide a center-line support for the barrel in resisting the recoil. In present-day conventional designs of semiautomatic pistols, a hand grip is included which is located below the center line of the barrel. This is necessarily true because provision must be made to allow the breechblock as it recoils to slide rearwardly over the shooters hand when the pistol is fired. Since the recoil thrust occurs at the center line of the barrel as the bullet moves, and the hand is resisting this thrust below the center line of the barrel, the pistol will tend to rotate about the hand as a pivot and the muzzle of the pistol will flip upwardly. The foregoing arrangement has been recognized as undesirable by competitive target shooters, and attempt has been made to remedy the unsatisfactory condition by utilizing muzzle brakes which deflect the gases upwardly as they leave the muzzle behind the bullet and thus counteract the tendency of the barrel to rotate upwardly. However, these devices have not exhibited a high degree of effectiveness to achieve the desired end, and often contribute to inaccuracy due to the build-up of fouling in the bullet passage. With the foregoing conditions in mind, the present invention has in view as its foremost objective the provision of a semiautomatic pistol which includes a hand grip the upper portion of which is in direct alignment with the center line of the barrel, and which when grasped by the user provides a support or base for resisting the recoil which is in line with the barrel. Prior to the advent of this invention, designers of semiautomatic pistols of the type with which this invention is concerned have been governed by the fallacy that it is necessary to locate the hand grip below the center line of the barrel in order to accommodate the rearward sliding movement of the breechblock during recoil. In the past, the breechblock would slide over the column of cartridges in the magazine, which is maintained at a fixed height, until the breechblock had mover rearwardly sufficient to clear the magazine; whereupon the column of cartridges would move upwardly under the influence of the magazine spring, and the top cartridge of the column would be caught by the returning breechblock and fed into the chamber. This construction, which heretofore had been looked upon as a necessity, requires the breechblock to be of sufiicient length to cover the magazine when the breechblock is fully forward, and therefore required considerable clearance to the rear when the breechblock recoiled. An important object of the present invention is to provide, in a semiautomatic pistol of the character indicated, a breechblock that is greatly shortened as compared to the breechblocks of conventional design, and which operates on the column of cartridges in the magazine under a novel principle. In accordance with this invention, the shortened breech-block does not hold the column of cartridges depressed, but rather depresses them when it recoils rearwardly and allows the uppermost cartridge to pop up in front of the breechblock in the conventional manner when the breechblock is fully to the rear. The present invention is particularly identified by this shortened breechblock which makes possible locating the upper part of the hand grip in alignment with the center of the barrel, and which also presents other advantages in the magazine action, as will later become apparent. In prior conventional designs of semiautomatic pistols, and particularly those with hammer-fired actions as compared to striker-fired actions, it has been the practice to locate the hammer and sear assemblies to the rear of this magazine, with the trigger in front of the magazine. Such an arrangement requires lengthy connections between the trigger and the sear, with attending difiiculties in achieving accurate fitting without excessive take-up or play between these elements. An important object of the present invention is to provide, in a semiautomatic pistol of the type noted, a sear-and-hammer assembly which is located in front of the magazine closely adjacent to the trigger. This is made possible because of the shortened breechblock. With the shortened breechblock, the trigger, hammer, and sear parts can be closely and accurately fitted in relation to one another, with an attending improvement in the quality of the trigger pull. Uniformity and crispness of the trigger pull are of the utmost importance to target shooters. Locating the hammer to the front of the magazine requires that the hammer arms straddle the magazine and act on a firing pin spanning the width of the breechblock, as contrasted with conventional designs using round firing pins placed in the center of the breechblock. Another important object of this invention is to provide, in a semiautomatic pistol of the character indicated, a hammer which includes arms which straddle the magazine and which cooperate with a transverse firing pin which spans the breechblock. In just about every automatic pistol, the trigger is pivotally mounted. The hammer also must be pivotally mounted; and it is common practice to pivotally mount a device for holding the slide open. An important object of this invention is to provide, in a semiautomatic pistol of the type noted, a common pivot pin for the trigger,- the hammer, and the slide hold-open device. Another object of this invention is to provide, in a semiautomatic pistol of the character indicated, a hammer that is formed with a centrally located inclined surface that is adapted to function as a feed ramp for a cartridge when the hammer is depressed and which guides the cartridge into firing position in the barrel. In a semiautomatic pistol, it is highly desirable to reduce to an absolute minimum all friction which might be created by upward movement of the cartridges in the magazine. This friction is reduced to an absolute minimum when the cartridges assume a position substantially normal to their direction of movement. However, it is an absolute necessity to dispose the hand grip at an obtuse angle with respect to the barrel; that is, the hand grip has a pitch which lends itself to the convenience and comfort with which it may be used. In the prior designs, it has been deemed necessary to arrange the cartridges substantially parallel to the barrel. Thus, the cartridges are not normal to their direction of movement. An important advantage of the present invention which is tied up with the shortened breechblock and feed ramp in the hammer is that the hand grip may have its necessary com fortable pitch and yet the cartridges assume a position normal to their path of movement because, as the breech 'block travels rearwardly during recoil, it passes over the uppermost cartridge and depresses the column. After .met' and sear. clearing the uppermost cartridge, it engages therewith and moves this cartridge forwardly over the feed ramp, which guides it into firing position. Another important object of the present invention is to provide, in a semiautomatic pistol of the character noted, a new and improved ejector. This ejector com-prises a pair of ejector arms which are located just above the hand grip at the rear of the bottom line of the barrel and with which cooperates an extractor in the form of a pivotally mounted hook that engages an annular groove in the cartridge at the top. During recoil, this extractor moves the empty cartridge casing rearwardly until it strikes the twin ejector arms. At this moment, the cartridge case is supported at three points; namely, by the extractor and the two ejector arms. This provides for accuracy in the ejecting movement and makes possible the use of a small ejection port. Still another object of the invention is to provide a new and improved automatic locking device for locking the barrel and slide together during the beginning of the recoil, and which is automatically operable to unlock at the proper point of the recoil action to permit the slide to move independently of the barrel. Still another object of the invention is to provide, in a semiautomatic piston of the character aforesaid, a new and improved safety which is also designed to function as a key for controlling disassembly of the mechanism. Detailed features of this safety will later become apparent. Still another object of the invention is to provide, in a semiautomatic piston ofthe type noted, a new and improved mounting for the slide on the receiver. This mounting insures that the slide cannot be blown to the rear to injure the shooter. Moreover, it permits the barrel to be mounted directly on the reciver, which makes for the greatest accuracy by permitting the sights to be mounted on the bar-rel and receiver, respectively, in permanent alignment. Various other more detailed objects and advantages of the invention, such as arise in connection with carrying out the above-noted ideas in a practical embodiment, will in part become apparent and in part be hereinafter stated as the description of the invention proceeds. The invention therefore comprises a semiautomatic piston which is characterized by a hand grip the upper portion of which is in direct alignment with the center line of the barrel, with the construction being made possible by a shortened breechblock, together with attending improvements involved in locking the sear-and-hamrner assembly in front of the magazine, and a novel friction-free feed of cartridges from the magazine to firing position. 'For a full and more complete understanding of the invention, reference may be had to the following description and accompanying drawings, wherein: Figure l is a view in side elevation of a semiautomatic pistol designed in accordance with the precepts of this invention and depicting how the hand grip is grasped by a shooter; Figure 2 is a side view taken as. a longitudinal vertical section through the pistol shown in Figure 1; Figure 3 is a detailed horizontal section through the upper portion of the receiver and is taken about on the plane represented by the line 3-3 of Figure 2; Figure 4 is a detailed sectional view taken on the same plane as Figure 2, showing the slide in its limits-of-recoil position and the corresponding position of the ham- In this view, the safety is shown in an impossible position for purposes of illustration, as will be later described; Figure 5. is a transverse vertical section taken about on the plane represented by the line 5-5 of Figure 2; Figure 6 is a top plan view with parts being indicated in broken lines and with other par-ts broken away and shown in section; Figure 7 is a view in front elevation of the barrel and slide; Figure 8 is a detailed top plan of the safety, with a portion of the receiver being shown in section; Figure 9 is another detailed top plan of the receiver, with the slide an barrel removed and a part of the receiver shown in section; 'Figure 10 is a detailed transverse vertical section with the breechblock removed, and is taken about on the plane represented by the line 10-10 of Figure 2; Figure ll is a detailed side elevation illustrating the safety and slide hold-open device; Figure 12 is a detailed bottom plan of the rear part of the barrel; Figure 13 is a transverse vertical section taken about t on the plane represented by the line 13-13 of Figure 2; 'Figure 14 is a detail partly in elevational and partly in section, being taken about on the plane represented by the line 14-14 of Figure 2; Figure 15 is a cross section through the hand grip, being taken about on the plane represented by the line 15-15 of Figure 2; Figure 16 is a transverse vertical section through the upper portion of the receiver, being taken about on the planes represented by the line 16-16 of Figure 2; Figure 17 is a perspective view depicting the slide and barrel in exploded relation; Figure 18 is a perspective of the receiver, per se; Figure 19 is a perspective view of the hammer, per se; Figure 20 is a detailed perspective of the sear; Figure 21 is a perspective of the disconnect lever and its actuating spring in exploded relation; and Figure 22 is a detailed perspective of the trigger. Referring to the drawings, it will be noted that the semiautomatic piston of this invention includes three main and essential elements. These are the receiver, the slide, and the barrel. Referring now more particularly to the drawings, I wherein like reference characters denote corresponding l parts, and first more particularly to Figure 18, the re ceiver is therein illustrated and referred to in its entirety l by the reference character R. The receiver R is made of metal and comprises a casinglike structure 20 made 1 up of side walls 21 and 22, and a front wall -23, all integrally joined. The side walls 21 and 22 are thickened as represented at 24, leaving a recess or slot opening to the rear. The side walls 21 and 22 are formed with cutouts 25 and 26 which lighten the construction. The wooden hand grip is applied over the side walls 21 I and 22' and rear slot 24 as illustrated in Figures 2 and 15. This wooden hand grip is designated 27 and is sei cured in position by a bolt 28 which is passed through aligned openings 29 formed in the thickened portions 24 of the side walls 21 and 22. A bushing 30 is interposed between these thickened portions of the side walls 21 and 22 and serves as a spacer to add rigidity to the structure. A trigger guard 31 has one end integrally joined to the front wall 23, as represented at 32; and its upper forward end is integrally joined to a forwardly extending portion of the receiver that is identified at 33, as indicated at 34. The forwardly extending portion of the receiver 33 comprises a bottom wall 35 and side walls 36 and 37. The side walls 36 and '37 are formed with inwardly opening channels 33 which receive guide ribs on the barrel, as will be later described. These front channels 38 terminate in side recesses 39 and are continued as rear channels 49* over the trigger guard 31. The bottom wall 35 is cut out to form a recess at 41-, and/the walls 36 and 37 are formed with aligned openings 42 on the opposite sides of this recess for a safety lever to be later described. The bottom wall 35 of the receiver terminates at a crosspiece 43. To the rear of this there is no continuation of the bottom wall, leaving an open space between the side walls 36 and 37. The side walls 36 and 37 are formed with side extenstem at 44 and 45 which extend upwardly over the casing 20 and the rear part of the trigger guard 31. The upper edges of these side walls 44 and 45 are formed with inwardly extending flanges 46 which function as a retainer for the slide, as will be later described. At the rear, the side walls 44 and 45 are connected by a top wall 47, with the flanges 46 being provided with cross recesses 48 for receiving a sight, as will be later described. Below this top wall 47, and extending between the side- wall extensions 44 and 45 at their rear ends, is a rear wall 49 providing an abutment surface which is shown in broken lines at 50 in Figure 6. The side- wall extensions 44 and 45 are formed with aligned openings 51 for accommodating a pivot pin, as will be later described. The side-wall extension 45 is formed with an opening at 52 for accommodating a safety lever, as will be later described, an an opening at 53 for a slide hold-open device, as will be later described. Another hole 19 extends between the side walls 36 and 37 at the front end for accommodating a cam plIl. Referring now more particularly to Figure 17, the barrel is therein illustrated and referred to in its entirety by the reference character B; while the slide is shown at S. The barrel B comprises a cylindrical tubular main body portion 54 having a bore 55. Extending outwardly from the lower sides of the tubular portion 54 of the barrel are guide ribs 56 which are received in channels formed in the slide, as will be later described. Depending from the tubular portion 54 of the barrel B is a block 57 formed with outwardly extending guide ribs 58 which are received in the forward channels 38 of the receiver. To the rear of this block 57 are a pair of depending ears 59 formed with aligned openings 68 which receive a pin of the barrel and slide lock, as will be later described. To the rear of these ears 59 is a rear block 61 having outwardly extending guide ribs 62 which are received in the rear guide channels 49 of the receiver. At the top of the rear end of the barrel is a notch 63 for accommodating an extractor, which will later be described. Mounted on the front end of the tubular portion 54 of the barrel is a sight 64. The slide S comprises side walls 65 and 66 which have a shape corresponding to the upper contour of the tubular portion 54 of the barrel which they encompass. Adjacent to their lower edges, side walls 65 and 66 are formed with channels 67 which receive the guide ribs 56 on the barrel B. The slide S also includes a top wall 68 which is cut out at its front end as indicated at 69 to accommodate the sight 64. This top wall 68 is reduced in thickness at the shoulder 70, and to the rear of this shoulder 70 is formed with an ejection port 71. The slide S is formed with a rear end wall at 72 having a curvature corresponding to the surface 50 on the rear end wall of the receiver with which it cooperates in providing an abutment limiting rearward movement of the slide. A slide extension 73 is formed at its front end with a downwardly extending flange 74 which is received in a cross groove 75 formed in the top wall 70 of the slide. This slide extension 73 normally closes the open space between the inwardly extending flanges 46 on the side- wall extensions 44 and 45 of the receiver R. As shown in Figure 2, a rear sight 76 is mounted in the cross recesses 48 of the receiver; and the slide extension 73 passes beneath this sight. Just in front of the cross groove 75 there is a block 77 which is internally recessed as indicated at 78 in Figure 2, with a hole 79 extending through the top wall thereof. An indicator pin 80 projects through this hole and is spring biased into its lowermost position by an expansion coil spring 81 received in the recess 78 which bears against a shoulder formed by enlarging the lower end of the pin 80. This pin is normally held depressed by the spring; but when a cartridge is moved into firing position, it is forced upwardly, as will be later described, to indicate this condition. A removable magazine is referred to in its entirety by the reference character M, and is shown in Figure 2 as being positioned within the casing 20. It is detachably held in this position by a detent 82 which is pivotally mounted on a pin 83, which is in turn mounted in openings 84 formed in the side walls 21 and 22 of the casing 20. This detent 82 is formed with a bore 85 which receives an expansion coil spring 86. One end of this expansion coil spring 86' bears against the lower end of the recess 85; while its upper end bears against a pin 87 that is mounted in the openings in the casing 20. It is evident that the spring 86 exerts a tendency normally holding the detent 82 in position in which the magazine M is held within the casing 20. The magazine M is of a conventional construction and includes a plurality of cartridges 88 that are spring biased upwardly. Each of the cartridges 88 includes a casing that is formed with an annular groove 89 at its rear end. Referring now more particularly to Figures 2 and 3, a pair of ejector arms 90 are shown as mounted on the receiver R above the casing 20. The breechblock of the slide, which is constituted by the rear wall 72 and shown in Figures 2 and 4, has pivotally mounted thereon as indicated at 92 an extractor in the form of a book 93 which engages the groove 89 in the cartridge case. When a cartridge 88 is moved into firing position as shown in Figure 2, the extractor 93 is forced upwardly to urge the indicating pin 80 upwardly into the position in which it indicates the presence of a cartridge in firing position. Upon recoil, the slide S moves to the rear. Thus the breechblock 91 pulls the empty cartridge case rearwardly until the lower portions thereof strike the ejector arms 90. As this action takes place, the empty cartridge case is ejected upwardly through the ejector port 71. As shown more clearly in Figure 6, the top wall 68 of the slide S is formed at each side with longitudinally extending recesses 94 in which are received recoil springs 95. The receiver R carries a pair of rods 96 (Figure 16) which bear against these springs at their rear ends. Thus, as recoil takes place, the springs 95 are compressed so that, after engagement of the abutment surfaces 50 and 72, the slide is returned to its forward position. Just as the shot is fired, and during beginning of recoil, it is desirable that the barrel and slide be locked together and then unlocked so that the slide may complete the recoil movement independently of the barrel. For this reason, a lock 97 is provided. This lock takes the form of a lever which is pivotally mounted between the ears 59 on a pin 98, which is in turn mounted in the openings 60 in the ears 59 of the barrel B. At the rear end the lever 97 is formed on its opposite sides with upwardly extending lugs 99 (Figure 2) that are adapted to be received in recesses 100 formed in both sides of the slide. At this same end of the lever 97 there is a downwardly projecting part 181 which provides a cam surface at 102. A pin 103 is fixedly mounted on the receiver R by being anchored in the openings 42. At its forward end and On its underside the lever 97 is formed with another cam surface 104 which cooperates with a pin 105 received in the opening 19. Figure 2 illustrates the condition of the locking lever 97 at the moment a short is fired. In this position, the lugs 99 are engaged in the recesses 100 in the slide; and the barrel and slide are locked together. Upon recoil, the slide and barrel move rearwardly together until the cam surface 104 rides over the pin 105. AS this action takes place, the forward end of the lever 97 is raised and the rear end lowered to move the lugs 99 out of the recesses 100 and permit the slide to continue its aoraeeo recoil independently of the barrel. After the recoil is Completed, and upon forward rnovement of the slide, the camsurface 102 will ride over tlie pin 103. the lugs 99 on the rear end of the lever position. The breechbloek, 72. of the" slide. is formed with a transverse slot 106 in which is mounted a tran ve se firing pin 107. This firing piri is shown in Figure 3 and includes a central pin proper 1 8 which isreceiyed in a po i y shaped, o n n hat x n s. i t e slot 106 entirely through the breechbloek. It is the pin 198 which actually engages the rear end of the cartridge case 88 to fire the cartridge, A pair of pins 199; bear against shoulders 110 formed on the firing pin 1 107, and are slidably mounted in bores 111 formed in opposite. sides of the slide. Expansion coil springs 112 are located in the forward parts of these bores 111, and constantly urge the firing pin reaiwardly. A hammer is referred to inits entirety by the reference character H, and is shown in detail in Figure 19. The hammer H includes a transverse bore 113 which receives a pivot pin 114 that is mounted in the openings 51 in the receiver R. The hammer H includes a central main body portion 115 from which upstands a pair of arms 116 which straddle the magazine M and the rearmost part of the breechblock 72 and engage the opposite ends of the firing pin 1117. The central portion 115 of the hammer H is recessed to provide a groove 117 which functions as a ramp over which a cartridge 88 rides when the hammer is depressed as illustrated in Figure 4. Extending forwardly from the central portion 115 of the hammer is a locking tongue 118 which is adapted to be engaged by a scar 119 to hold the hammer in its depressed or cocked position. The sear 119 is carried by a hub 120 having a transverse bore 121 which receives a pivot pin 122 that is mounted in the openings 123 (Figure 18) formed in the receiver R. Extending forwardly from the hub 12% are a pair of arms 124, the forward ends of which are formed with outwardly extending ears 125, (See Figure 20.) Engaging the underside of these ears 125 to urge the arms 124 upwardly are a pair of coil springs 126 that are positioned in recesses 127 formed in the trigger guard 31. (See Figure 2.) A disconnect lever is shown in detail in Figure 2l, and is referred to in its entirety by the reference character L. This disconnect lever L comprises a pair of arms 128 each having downwardly exposed shoulders 129' which engage the ears 125 on the arms 124 of the sear. The arms 128 are joined at the top by a crosspiece 130; and upstanding centrally therefrom is a projection 131 which cooperates with a disengaging plunger as will be later described. The lower ends of the arms 128 are formed with aligned openings 132. A trigger is illustrated in detail in Figure 22 and is referred to in its entirety by the reference character T. It includes a finger-engaging element 133 and a top piece 134. Extending upwardly from the opposite side edges of the later are a pair of side flanges 135 the forward ends of which are formed with aligned openings 136. The lower ends of the arms 128 are received between these flanges 135, with the openrings 132 aligning with the openings 136. A pin 137 passes through these aligned openings and serves to pivotally connect the disconnect lever L to the trigger T. Where the top piece 134 merges in with the finger-engaging part 133, the flanges 135 are formed with upwardly extending ears 138 formed with openings 139 which receive the pivot pin 114. Thus the trigger T is pivotally mounted on the same pivot pin as the hammer H. It is evident that as a shot is fired the recoil moves the breechblock 72 rearwardly to depress the hammer H into the position depicted in Figure 4. In this position the sear 119 engages the central projection 118 on the hammer to hold the hammer cocked. Moreover, a plunger 140, which is shown in Figure 4 and which is spring biased rearwardly by an. expansion coil spring. 141that is mounted in a recess 142 formed in the barrel, engages the projection 131 on the disconnect lever L to move the latter rearwardly into a position in which the shoulders .129. are out of engagement with the. ears 125. Thus, any continued pressure on the trigger will have no effect onfthe sear. However, when the barrel and slide move forwardly after recoil and under influence of the springs 95, the plunger moves with it to permit the disconnect lever 129 to again move forwardly under the influence of a wire spring 143. that is mounted on the pin 137. Thus, the shoulders 129 are again brought into effective engagement with the ears 125. The trigger T must be released before the shoulders 129 will again engage the ears 125 to render the disconnect lever L effective. When pressure is exerted on the'finger piece 133 of the trigger T, the latter is rotated to exert a downward pull on the disconnect lever L. This moves the sear 119 out of locking engagement with the projection 118 on the hammer H to allow the latter to be fired under the influence of an expansion coil spring 144 which is received in a socket 145 formed in the forward end of the trigger guard 31. The firing spring 144 is rendered eflective through a plunger 146 which is connected by a link 147 to the hammer H indicated at 148 in Figure 4. Referring now more particularly to Figure 2, it will be noted that the trigger T is formed witha recess at 149 which receives one end of an expansion coil spring 150. The other end of this spring is recieved in a recess formed in the receiver R. Thus, the finger-grip portion 133 of the trigger T is normally urged forwardly away from the hand grip by this spring. It is depressed against the influence of the spring 150. A safety lever is shown in detail in Figure 8, and is identified by the reference character 151. Formed integrally therewith is a pivot pin 152 which passes entirely through the openings 42 in the receiver and projects out beyond the opposite side as shown in Figure 9. Carried by the safety lever 151 is a tablike arm 153 which is reduced at its inner end to provide a locking tongue 154. The arm 153 extends through the opening 52 in the receiver wall 37; and the projection 154 is adapted to assume a position immediately in front of the sear 119 when the latter is in position holding the hammer cocked as depicted in Figure 4. When the safety lever 151 is depressed, this projection .154 is removed from in front of the sear so that the latter may be. operated to fire the hammer. Carried by the arm 153 immediately adjacent to the lever 151 is a small housing 155 in which is received a spring-biased pin 156. The nose of the latter is adapted to engage either of the notches 157 or 158 formed at one end of the opening 52 in the receiver wall 37. When the pin 156 is in the uppermost notch 157, the safety is yieldably held in safe position. When the pin 156 is in the lowermost notch 158, the safety is ofi. The end wall of the opening 52 that is formed with these notches 157 and 158 is slightly inclined as shown in 'Figure 8 to oifer yieldable resistance to removal of the safety. Referring now more particularly to Figure 12, which is a bottom plan of the rear part of the barrel B, it will be noted that the underside of the barrel is formed with a shallow slot at 159 and a higher or deeper slot 160, with the two being seperated by a shoulder 161'. The block 62 is formed with a transverse notch 162 (Figures 12 and 17) which communicates with the slot 159. Re fering again now to Figure 8, it will be noted that the arm 153 carries an upwardly extending projection 163 which is adapted to travel longitudinally in the slots 159 and or moved laterally through the cross notch 162 when the safety is to be removed. When the safety is in its uppermost safe position, this projection 163 engages the shoulder 161 to prevent rearward movement of the barrel and slide. It is to be remembered that in the forward position the barrel and slide are locked together. When it is desired to disassemble the barrel, slide, and receiver, as in field stripping, the operator simply moves the barrel and slide together as a unit rearwardly in the receiver, at the same time maintaining pressure on the projecting end of the pin 152. Thus, when the projection 163 comes opposite to the cross notch 162, it will move therethrough, and the entire safety device is withdrawn. The barrel and slide together may then be moved forwardly until the guide ribs 58 clear the channels 38 at the front and the guide ribs 62 are positioned in the side recesses 39. The barrel and slide may then be moved upwardly as a unit because the rear portion of the slide will have cleared the flanges 46. After the barrel and slide has been moved as a unit, the barrel may be pulled out of the slide. This is ordinarily all the disassembly that is required for field stripping. However, if further disassembly is required, it will be noted that the pins 114 and 122 are headed as shown in Figure 9, with the heads being located beneath the safety lever 151. Thus, with the safety lever 151 removed, these headed pins may also be removed. Removal of the safety lever is yieldably resisted by the spring-biased pin 156 engaging the inclined end of the opening 52. Referring now more particularly to Figure 11, a slideholding detent is depicted therein broken in lines and is designated 164. This detent has the shape of a segment; and its smaller end is formed with an opening which receives the pivot pin 114 to pivotally mount the detent 164. As shown in Figure 9, the detent 164 carries an inwardly extending arm 165 that is adapted to be engaged by the cartridge follower in the magazine M. As above explained, the magazine is of conventional construction and the details thereof are not herein illustrated. However, it is noted that the column of cartridges is supported at the bottom from a platelike follower that is spring biased upwardly. After the last cartridge has been moved into firing position, the follower will engage the arm 165 to move the detent 164 upwardly so that its upper corner is received in the recess 100 on that side of the slide. This is depicted in Figure 11. Thus the slide is held in open position until a new magazine has been inserted; and the operator depresses the detent 164 through the medium of the finger tab 166 which projects through the opening 53 in the receiver. The opening 53 is somewhat larger than the tab 166 topermit swinging movement of the detent 164. As shown in Figure 11, a small expansion coil spring 167 normally urges the detent 164 downwardly into ineffective position. Referring now more particularly to Figure 17, it will be noted that a flange 168 depends from the forward end of the block 62. The forward face of this flange is curved as indicated at 169 to impart thereto a contour corresponding to that of the pin 103. Thus, forward movement of the barrel is limited by the engagement of the forward face 169 of the flange 168 with the pin 103. Rearward movement of the barrel is limited by the engagement of the rear face of the flange 168 with the crosspiece 43 on the receiver. Operation While the manner in which the semiautomatic pistol of this invention operates is believed to be ascertainable from the illustration of the drawings and description of parts given, it may be briefly outlined as follows. With a cartridge in firing position and the hammer cocked, the shooter exerts a pull on the finger piece 133 of the trigger T. This pulls the disconnect lever L downwardly to remove the sear from the position in which it restricts firing movement of the hammer. The hammer is thus actuated under the influence of the spring 144 to hit the firing pin and fire the cartridge. As the bullet moves forwardly, recoil takes place, and the barrel and slide, which it is to be remembered are locked together by the lock 97, move rearwardly. Rearward movement of the barrel stops when the flange 168 thereon engages the crosspiece 43 of the receiver. By this time, the projections 99 on the lock 97 will have been withdrawn from the recesses 100 so that the slide continues to move rearwardly. As this rearward movement takes place, the hammer H is moved into cocked position and the breechblock 72 engages the uppermost cartridge 88 in the magazine M. It is to be remembered that this uppermost cartridge will be disposed at an angle corresponding to the pitch of the handle. Thus it is favorably disposed for engagement by the beveled lower rear end of the breechblock so that it will be depressed by rearward movement of the breechblock. This rearward movement of the slide continues until the breechblock strikes the surface 50 on the rear wall 49 of the receiver. During this recoil, energy is stored up in the recoil springs 95. Just before completion of rearward movement of the slide, the empty cartridge case is ejected through the port 71 by the combined action of the extractor 93 and twin ejection arms 90. In its rearmost position, the breechblock 72 clears the uppermost cartridge 88, and the latter pops up into position in which it is engaged by forward movement of the breechblock so that it is moved over the ramp 117 in the hammer H and into firing position in the barrel. As this action takes place, the extractor hook 93 engages the groove 89 in the cartridge case, and also the underside of the indicating pin 80, to move the latter upwardly. It is believed here unnecessary to repeat in detail the operation of the hammer, sear, disconnect lever, and trigger, it being sufiicient to point out that during recoil the breechblock 72 moves the hammer into the cocked position illustrated in Figure 4; and the sear is moved into engagement to hold the hammer in this position until such time as the trigger is again pulled. When it is desired to field strip the pistol, the safety lever is removed in the manner above described; whereupon the barrel and slide as a unit are removed from the receiver and then in turn separated. If further disassembly is desired, the pins 114 and 122 may be removed because the safety which holds these pins in assembled relation will have been removed. While a preferred specific embodiment of this invention is hereinbefore set forth, it is to be clearly understood that the invention is not to be limited to the exact constructions, mechanisms, and devices illustrated and described, because various modifications of these details may be provided in putting the invention into practice within the purview of the appended claims. What is claimed is: 1. In a semiautomatic pistolfa receiver including a casing defining a magazine chamber and including a front wall, a part extending forwardly from said casing, side walls on said forwardly extending part, said side walls being continued rearwardly over said casing and having upwardly extending side-wall extensions and a rear wall defining a recoil space over said magazine chamber; a barrel slidably mounted in said forwardly extending part; and a slide mounted on said barrel and having a rear end constituting a breechblock, said breechblock being located forward of said magazine chamber when said slide is in its forwardmost position; said casing, rearwardly continuing side walls, side-wall extensions and rear wall defining a pistol grip with its upper portion in rearward alignment with said barrel. 2. In a semiautomatic pistol, a receiver including a casing defining a magazine chamber and including a front wall, a part extending forwardly from said casing, side walls on said forwardly extending part, said side walls being continued rearwardly over said casing and having upwardly extending side-wall extensions and a rear wall defining a recoil space over said magazine chamber; a barrel slidably mounted in said forwardly extending part; cooperating abutment elements on said barrel and receiver limiting reciprocating movement of said barrel relative to said receiver; and a slide mounted on said barrel and having a rear end constituting a breechblock, said br'eechblock being located substantially forward of said magazine chamber when said slide is in its forwardm'ost position; said breechblock and rear wall of the receiver constituting abutment means limiting recoil movement of said slide; said casing, rearwardly continuing side walls, side-Wall extensions and rear wall defining. a pistol grip with its upper portion in rearward alignment with said barrel. 3. In a semiautomatic pistol, a receiver including a casing defining 'a magazine chamber and including a front wall, a part extending forwardly from said casing, side Walls on said forwardly extending part, said side walls being continued rearwardly over said casing and having upwardly extending side-wall extensions and a rear wall defining a recoil space over said magazine chamber; a barrel slidably mounted in said forwardly extending part; a slide mounted on said barrel and having a rear end constituting a breechblock, said breec hblock being located substantially forward of said magazine chamber when said slide is in its forwardmost position; and locking means for locking said barrel and slide together during the first part of recoil and releasing the slide from the barrel during the remainder of recoil movement of said 12 slide; said casing, rearwardly continuing side walls, sidewall extensions and rear wall defining a pistol grip with its upper portion in rearward alignment with said barrel. References Cited in the file of this patent UNITED STATES 13ATENTS 350,565 Schoening Oct. 12, 1886 591,525 Burgess Oct. 12, 1897 1,427,413 Pieper Aug. 29, 1922 1,638,351 Loomis Aug. 9, 1927 2,115,041 Obregon Apr. 26, 1938 2,136,396 Savage Nov. 15, 1938 2,174,971 Crockett Oct. 3, 1939 2,345,077 Swebilius Mar. 28, 1944 2,495,428 Simonson et a1. Jan. 24, 1950 2,585,275 Ruger Feb. 12, 1952 2,622,359 Belleri Deck. 23, 1952 2,705,847 Kramer Apr. 12, 1955 2,775,837 Perry et al. Ian. 1, 1957 2,780,881 Crittendon et a1. Feb. 12, 1957 2,817,174 Liedke Dec. 24, 1957 2,899,767 Boudreau Aug. 18, 1959 FOREIGN PATENTS 389,738 Germany Feb. 11, 1924

Description United States Patent [191 Stoeckert [451 Apr. 8, 1975 WIND TURBINE DRIVEN GENERATOR TO RECIIARGE BATTERIES IN ELECTRIC VEHICLES [76] Inventor: Christian Stoeckert, PO. Box 993, Jetersville, Va. 23083 221 Filed: Jan. 2, 1974 [21] Appl. No.: 430,048 Primary E.'aminer-J. D. Miller Assistant Examiner-Robert J. Hickey [57] ABSTRACT In a wind turbine driven generator for the recharging of batteries utilized as the power source for various vehicles, and particularly an automotive electrically driven vehicle, the mechanical combination wherein wind driven vanes of particular design are mounted to rotate about a vertical shaft disposed in or on the roof of the vehicle, said vanes being completely enclosed within a suitable housing of either rectangular or circular configuration. When of rectangular shape the housing has at least four air current receiving openings, one on each side, each of which do in turn serve as exhaust outlets depending on direction of predominant air pressure, and, when of circular configuration, the housing has but one air current receiving vent, with that vent revolving to face the direction of any wind current by the impetus ofa wind vane on the top thereof. In either case the arrangement is such that the said wind driven vanes rotate while the vehicle is under way, or, if air currents are prevalent, even while the vehicle is not in motion, thus to drive a suitably mounted generator for more or less continuous recharge of the battery system. Said generator is mounted within the hub around which said vanes rotate, and comprises a stationary stator, and rotating rotor, the latter being wind driven by the rotating vanes. 9 Claims, 5 Drawing Figures WIND TURBINE DRIVEN QENE'RATOR TO RECI ARGE BATTERIES IN ELECT IC VEHICLES BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION AND PRIOR ART A'sindicated in the foregoing Abstract, this invention relates to a novel wind turbine driven generator utilized for the recharging of batteries of various types of vehicles and particularly the batteries used in an electrically driven motor vehicle. The uniqueness of the invention resides in an arrangement wherein the forward motion of the electrically driven vehicle causes wind vanes of a particular scoop design to be driven by the current of air generated by such forward motion. More significantly, perhaps, is that in the instant case any prevalent wind current from any direction will cause the wind vanes to rotate and hence the generator which is driven by such vanes to produce an electrical current, the voltage of which is transmitted to the series of storage batteries which are utilized as the motive power for electric vehicles. In one instance, the air scoop arrangement of the invention including the generator located within the hub thereof, is permanently affixed on or within the roof of the vehicle; in the other instance, the device may be of a portable nature and thus adapted to be-mounted upon, or removed from the roof, of the vehicle within the option of the operator. In the latter instance, the invention contemplates an enclosed air scoop and generator arrangement provided with a suitable wind vane which maintains the air scoop facing into the direction of the wind or air current. In both cases, it is to be noted that generation of electrical energy occurs not only while the vehicle is in motion but also and, assuming there are prevalent wind currents, when the vehicle is not in motion. Where the wind current is even of a slight amount, this nevertheless results in at least a trickle charge being generated and so long as the wind prevails. that charge, even if it be of low voltage, will be fed into battery system for regenerative purposes. On the other hand, the arrangement of the invention is such that under conditions where a quartering or side wind velocity is greater than air flow or air velocity due to the motion of the vehicle, the air scoop arrangement still takes advantage of the higher force component, thus permitting the wind vanes to rotate and the generator to function to constantly cause air flow to the battery system. There have been a number of ideas advanced, as exhibited by the prior art, which seek to achieve the same ultimate objective as here contemplated; however, these exhibit numerous disadvantages, as some are most complex mechanically in this regard, and more importantly, most involve mechanical combinations which are of such a nature that only the forward motion of the vehicle will actuate the type of propeller or other device which is used to in turn rotate the armature of a suitable electric generator. Among the prior art which is typical of such arrangements are the following US. Pat. Nos.: 2,941,613, 3,374,849, 3,444,946, 3,621,930 and 3,359,479. Of these prior art items, the first four represent exactly that type of development referred to above: all describe proposed structures which are useful only in the sense that the generator is activated only by forward motion of the vehicle. Alternatively, if the vehicle remains stationary" only the wind velocity headed directly into the forward end of the vehicle would produce any generation of electricity. Thus it is apparent that such devices are not adapted to take advantage of wind current forces from alternate directions, as the case with the present invention. Also, the type of vane or propeller used is of an inefficient design, such as to fail in overcoming electrical resistance of any generator, particularly at higher speed levels of the latter. .The remaining patent (US. Pat. No. 3,359,479) is representative of but a simple four-vaned wind receiving device, the reference pointing away from the instant invention by indicating that any more than four of such vanes will produce aerodynamic interference. In the instantcase, some dozen or more wind scoops may be effectively utilized. This prior art item further involved an additional and severe disadvantage the latter resides in the fact that there is absent the cover structure used in both versions of the instant invention. Yet it is this latter structure, with one or more outlets for the reception of a wind component or force, that permits the novel combination of the instant invention to effectively utilize wind or air force no matter from which direction it emanates. Indeed, in the instant case even where there is a prevalent high wind velocity from the rear, the scoop arrangement would function even if the vehicle be in forward motion, this provided that the force component from the rear be larger than the force component from the forward area. In any event, with regard to all of this prior art, it is thus evident that none of the same illustrates a combination wherein firstly, a wind or air force component from whatever direction can be utilized to drive the scoops and in turn drive the generator and, secondly, none of this prior art, in conjunction with the last named advantage exhibits any arrangement of inlet and outlet, together with the unique scoop design, that advantageously utilizes the hydraulic ram principle to thus maximize impact force upon the turbine blades. In this latter respect, my invention encompasses a fundamental design principle use of what might be termed a horn-shaped type of inlet or inlets in conjunctionwith an opposing outlet or air exit, and this with regard to a completely enclosed wind turbine. The entire combination thus emphasizes the hydraulic ram principle, the result being far greater efficiency and effectiveness in the production of electrical energy via generator drive, than any of the designs heretofore exhibited by the prior art, and as such is exemplified in the foregoing. OBJECTS OF THE INVENTION It is accordingly a primary object of the instant invention to provide a wind turbine generator for use with regard to any type of vehicle but particularly electric automotive vehicles wherein the force of prevalent air currents, no matter from what direction, and whether the vehicle is in motion or not, are utilizedto more or less continuously rotate the armature of a suitable generating device to produce electrical energy and feed that voltage, even if in slight increments, back to the battery source commonly used to drive motor vehicles having electrical motor means. It is another object of the invention to provide a device of the nature briefly referred to above which can be permanently installed in the roof of such vehicles as an automotive vehicle, electrically driven, or can be in optional form of portable type to be emplaced upon a roof of an already fabricated electric vehicle without undue convenience and of course without substantial body alteration of such vehicle. Another object of the invention is to provide a wind turbine generator means for the storage battery means of an electric vehicle wherein in one form thereof the wind vanes, of scoop design, are entirely enclosed within a suitable housing, such housing being or rectangular configuration and having at least four inlets and four outlets such that the scoop, and the vane members receive wind currents no matter from what direction the air force might emanate, thus to permit rotation of the armature of a suitable generator means and whether the vehicle is in motion or not and provided only that there be available prevelent air currents. In other words, with regard to this objective of the invention, the vaned element will be rotated from whatever direction the higher component of wind velocity or force is generated, and this, whether the vehicle is in motion or not. Obviously, if the vehicle is in motion the greater wind force will more generally than not be from the front end. It is a further objective of the invention to provide as an alternate embodiment thereof a rotating turret within which the entire scoop, vaned arrangement and generator means is located, the same being portable in nature, that is, mountable on and demountable from the roof top at the desire of the operator. In this regard, this rotatable turret is provided with a wind vane such that the appropriate air inlet in the turret will constantly face into the direction of the wind, and this again, whether or not the vehicle is in motion. Finally, it is a most fundamental objective and advantage of the invention to provide a design of the simplest sort, without complex moving parts or complicated mechanical structure; here the invention particularly departs from the prior art and with regard to such schemes as advanced by the patents above noted where, to fulfill the sole aim of such designs, the involved pantentees have proposed structures so complex in nature that to actually fabricate such devices would call for, in many instances, a redesign of the entire vehicle, this at great and unwarranted expense. With regard to my invention, and in contrast, cost of fabrication, by the simplicity of the arrangement thereof, is minimal, thus to permit of installation or fabrication of the unit at low and reasonable expense to the consumer. DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS The appended drawings depict not only the manner of construction of the devices of my invention but also graphically illustrate the use thereof in two ways (the two preferred embodiments) which have been above briefly mentioned. Referring more particularly thereto: FIG. 1 is a top plan view, partially in section, of one preferred embodiment of the invention .illustrating the same mounted in a permanent fashion in or upon the roof of an electrically driven motor vehicle, and also particularly illustrating not only the scoop design of the vaned arrangement, but also the inlet and outlet ports which materially contribute to the desired ram effect conducive to superior efficiency. Also the generating means is depicted as being located within the hub portion of this type of vaned construction, a feature common to both embodiments; FIG. 2 is a section view of the invention taken on the line 22 of FIG. 1; FIG. 3 depicts an alternate version of the invention wherein the same is of a portable type, utilizing a circular turret which is adapted to be turned by the force of the wind with the throat or opening of that turret resultantly being directed towards the air current, no matter from what direction; FIG. 4 is a top plan view, partially in section, of the alternate embodiment of the invention, and as same is illustrated in FIG. 3; and FIG. 5 is a section view of the invention taken on the line 55 of FIG. 4. MORE DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION The first embodiment of my invention is represented in FIGS. 1 and 2 and reference thereto will first be made. A vehicle body of usual design is generally indicated at 1. The enclosure for the moving elements represented particularly by the wind vane, turbine arrangement, are enclosed within a housing generally indicated at 2. Such housing is shown as being emplaced upon or in the upper portion of the roof of the given vehicle. In the instant case and as indicated, the vehicle is electrically driven and to this end a battery housing 5 is provided with which a series of storage batteries 7 are located. It will be seen, viewing FIG. 1, that there are four air inlets in the housing 2 and also, as will be described below, four complementary exit or air outlets. These combined air inlet and otlet arrangements are separately indicated at A, B, C and D and represent respectively, the right forward air inlet-outlet, the right rearinlet-outlet, the left rear inlet-outlet and the left forward inlet-outlet (viewing FIG. 1). Each of these is of like design, in that all of them represent an air scoop of more or less horn design in that the entering space is larger than the exit area so that the referred to ram" effect is obtained by acceleration of velocity of the air as it approaches the vanes of the provided turbine. Thus, referring first to the right forward air inletoutlet A (again FIG. 1), the front of the casing is provided with an air permeable member 32 such as a screen fitted between the curved metal portion 55 having an air inlet opening 51, and a lower (viewing FIG. 1), metal plate 48. This latter plate is also curved at its rear end to fit the shape of the turbine which it there encloses, such plate also being provided with an opening 54 which represents the second of the air inlet openings. Thus the second air inlet-outlet assembly B similarly comprises a screen element 52 fitted in between the side member 48 and a metal plate 60 which is similar in configuration to that of the forward scoop but of course reversely mounted because of its rear portion. This element 60 terminates with an appropriate opening 61 representing an air inlet-exit point for air entering the second air inlet 52. Here again the horn design is followed with the same result of increase in velocity of air from entrance point to exit point at exit 54. The left rear of the housing comprises another screen element 34 which is of the same design as the forward element 32 but of course oppositely located with regard to the latter. This screen element 34 represents the rear air inlet-exit opening, the scoop design of same again being represented by the letter C. Such air scoop thus comprises screen element 34, the curved plate 60, and on the left side of the vehicle (or viewing FIG. 1, the left upper side), the plate 40 which along half its length is parallel to plate 48 and towards its forward end is again curved to fit the configuration of the turbine which it encloses and as indicated at 42. The air inlet-outlet opening in plate or member 60 is represented by the numeral 61. Finally, the air scoop and air exit design D, or that one positioned at the left front portion of the housing, again comprises an air inlet opening 45 consisting again of screening, and the curved portion 42 of plate 40,- and further, the forward plate 55. The curved portion of plate 40, namely 42, terminates at a point short of the center line of the vehicle to again leave an opening 56 which is representative of the air outlet opening for air entering through screen 45 at the left front portion of the housing. This entire housing structure, referring to FIG. 2, is affixed to the roof of the vehicle, represented by the rear roof portion and the forward roof portion 12, and by any suitable means such as that indicated at 18 and 19 respectively, the latter consisting of slot formations within which these roof segments 10 and 12 interfit and within which they can be securely affixed as by welding, etc. Obviously, the side portions of the roof, although not here shown, are fabricated to be affixed to the housing in the same fashion or in any other suitable manner that would be known to those skilled in the art. The turbine mechanism is completely enclosed within this housing and to this end same is provided with a bottom plate and an upper plate 30 (see FIG. 2), with the forward and aft screen portions 32 and 34 also being indicated in this figure. The upper plate 30 is provided with a central hub 65 and the lower plate 15 also provided with a central hub 68, each of these hubs having a central bore (as indicated) such as to receive a pin or shaft 70 upon which the vaned rotor is rotatably mounted. The pin 70 is itself stationary, and thus affixed in any suitable manner to the bores in each of the hubs 65 and 68. The rotor vanes, indicated at 85, are positioned within and affixed to upper plate 80 and the lower plate 81, these vanes and said plates 80, 81 rotating about the shaft 70. The rotor assembly is thus independently and completely closed except for the peripheral area of the rotor blades 85. Such vanes 85 are of a scoop design in the sense that in cross section, and as clearly shown in FIG. 1, they represent approximately one half of a circular configuration. In the embodiment here' shown there are twelve of such scoops 85, these comprising this rotor drive assembly. Such scoops 85 are formed upon an interior hub 90 of circular configuration. This hub forms the rotor portion of the generator means, such being represented by the windings 95, these windings in turn being formed upon suitable interiorly directed radial extensions formed upon the hub 90 and as also shown in FIG. 1. Again referring to this figure, the stator of the generator means is represented at 92. This stator comprises a series of complementary windings, that is complementary to those of the rotor indicated at 95. The stator is permanently affixed to the shaft 70. Suitable spaces, washers or antifriction bearings 93 and 94, can be located on each side of the stator element to provide free rotation of the rotating vane means. From the foregoing, it is seen that the generating means is built within and forms a part of the rotatable, vaned system. As indicated in FIG. 2, current is applied to the stator windings from the battery means through lines 96 and 97 to create an electrical or magnetic field which is broken intermittently upon rotation of the windings on the hub 90, thus to generate an electrical current. The produced voltage is transmitted through lines 98 and 99, as shown in FIG. 2, and through such known mechanism as suitable armature or collector rings, generally and only graphically indicated at 100. Thus upon rotation of the vaned arrangement responsive to flow of air from any direction an alternating current is produced as graphically illustrated via the mechanism shown in FIG. 2. Being alternating current, the same would have to be rectified to direct current through such usual means (not shown) as known transistorized rectification circuitry. On the other hand, as is well known to the art, if the successive coils of the rotor are wound in alternate directions then the generated current would necessarily flow in the same direction and such would be in the first instance direct current suitable for recharging purposes. Again any ripple in this DC flow of current can be removed, if necessary, by known electronic media so that a pure DC flow of voltage is fed directly to the storage battery system to regenerate the latter. Also, as is usual in any charging device and as is known to the art, it may be desirable to provide a voltage regulator having a cut-out means or equivalent to prevent flow of current at points of peak output to assure that the battery system is not overcharged. All such means are well known to those skilled in the art and need not be further explained here. The peculiar design of the horn" shaped inlets together with the particular design of the shape of each of the rotor vanes in combination assures peak performance so far as drive of the involved generator means be concerned. Such combined arrangement is here of importance for it is appreciated that with increased speed of the generator rotor there is an increased electrical resistance to rotation and hence every incremental amount of wind energy that is available must be efficiently utilized to achieve the purposes of the invention. In the instant case, this improved combination is intended to more efficiently convert wind energy to electrical energy, and far more so than any of the prior art attempts to do so in the past and as such are represented by the prior art items generally summarized in the beginning of this Specification As a matter of fact, the system of my invention represents a vast improvement over the simple wind vane of US. Pat. No. 3,359,479, for, even if subject to rotation by wind from any direction, that device would be more or less totally ineffective for the purposes of this invention because of its great inefficiency, this in turn resulting from the design of the rotor there shown. The latter is not enclosed in a suitable casing, etc., would have a power output which would be negligible, and thus in fact incapable of overcoming the increased electrical resistance of the generator means at higher speeds thereof, and as mentioned in the foregoing. The second embodiment or version of this invention is shown in FIGS. 3 to 5 inclusive. Insofar as the rotor vane arrangement, generator, stator and rotor coils, "etc., be concerned, the mechanical elements thereof are the same as shown in FIGS. 1 and 2. Therefore, like numerals as to like parts of the combination are applied in these FIGS. 3 to 5. The main difference between this version of the invention and that shownin FIGS. land 2 isthat in the second embodiment thereof the wind vane drive for the generator assembly is shown emplaced in a housing which is portable, or mountable and demountable, with respect to the roof or top portion of a given electrically driven vehicle. Also in this alternate of the invention there is only one air inlet and one air outlet, but with the latter, by a suitable wind vane, forced to face in the direction of the wind source. In this version of the invention this portable assembly is mounted upon the top 103 of the usual form of vehicle. The turret or casing 113 for the entire unit is fixed to the automobile via the usual type of turnbucklehook arrangements, such as generally depicted at 105, and such being common to the art as for example, the tie-down of a luggage carrier upon the top of any automobile. As stated, the housing 113 in this version of the invention is rotatable; obviously the rotor represented by the vanes 85 is also rotatable. Therefore and with particular reference to FIG. 5, the shaft 70 is fixed at only one point, and this via a suitable pin through the said shaft and the hub 68, which latter is in turn made integral with the bottom and stationary plate 112. Thus the housing 113 is permitted to turn and of course the rotor itself permitting to rotate, both being in rotatable relationship with regard to the fixed pin or shaft 70. This bottom plate 112, also of circular configuration to match that of the housing 113 and as shown in FIG. 5, is of course stationary with respect to both the rotor and the rotor housing and is secured to the top of the vehicle via any usual means such as the turnbuckle assemblies 105 or other usual form of attachment. It rests upon a series of four stanchions or support members 110 and as shown in FIGS. 4 and 5. The assembly of rotor and easing are held in the position shown in FIG. 5 by a usual bolt means 117 threaded into an appropriate threaded bore in the upper end of shaft 70. Also in this embodiment of the invention, the circular housing 113 is of such a diameter as to encompass, within reasonable tolerance, the diameter of the rotor as represented by the extremities of the rotor blades or vanes 85. Further, and as stated, in this version of the invention there is only one inlet 125 and one air exit 130. The air inlet, and as shown in FIG. 4, again comprises a scoop configuration 125, and the air exit, approximately diametrically opposed from the inlet, is represented by an opening 130 cut into the wall of the casing 113. As shown in FIG. 3 the air inlet 125 is facing the forward end of the vehicle and, presuming the vehicle to be in motion and no component wind forces from another direction, the air inlet is located forwardly because of the air current directed against the wind vane 150. The latter is positioned on top of the casing 113. This vane 150 has a configuration approximate to that as shown in FIG. 3; however, its shape and relative size may be of any sort so long as it performs the function of rotating this turret-type casing 113 into the direction of the wind, or in other words, in that direction where the air inlet faces the oncoming wind force. Accordingly, if the vehicle be at a standstill with no forward motion but there be prevalent air currents, the same would rotate the turret or casing 113 via the vane 150 in a direction to point the inlet 125 directly into the prevalent air current. Manifestly, the result is in any event to force rotation of vanes in a clockwise direction and this whether the vehicle be in motion or at a standstill. Any vane rotation will of course result in the generation of electrical current for ultimate output to the battery system and as explained above, even if the vehicle is not in motion. In other words, where there are prevalent wind currents, and no matter from what direction, there will be an incremental amount of voltage delivered to the battery system for charging purposes. It is thus in these respects that the involved invention so vastly differs from the schemes of other adventurers in the art and simply in this: that the generation of electricity does not solely depend upon forward motion of the vehicle but can occur under conditions of wind velocity while the vehicle is not in motion. Furthermore and again unlike the ideas of others in the art, actuation of the wind vane rotor system is not dependent simply upon forward motion of the automobile but upon the more important factor of wind velocity as a component air force from any direction whatsoever. Thus, as indicated above, if the vehicle were travelling at 30 miles per hour forwardly and there were either a side or quarterly wind velocity substantially in excess of that amount the latter would prevail with an overcoming force component which would turn the vaned rotor irrespective of the lesser velocity of the air force directed toward the front of the vehicle. Also, it is visualized that in the motion of any vehicle at higher or even medium speeds and despite the modern body designs of same, there is developed in the rear of the vehicle a space of low air pressure or vacuum, much in the sense that an aircraft wing is so designed that low pressure above the wing lifts the aircraft, not the air current prevalent beneath the wing. As a development following this theory in the application of the instant invention, it is thus apparent that any forward or side air current entering, for example, the areas A, B and D of the vehicle as shown in FIG. 1, will be substantially aided in their respective velocities by the development of lower air pressure which may exist in rear area C, thus to substantially increase the efficiency of the entire unit in the sense of greater velocity of the turbine or greater thrust upon the turbine blades, and under these operating conditions. Although other alternates and substitutes may be made without departing from the spirit of the invention, it is to be understood that the scope thereof is to be measured only by the limitations of the several claims appended hereto. I claim: 1. In a wind driven turbine generator to recharge the batteries of an electric vehicle the combination comprising a rotatable wind driven rotor means, said means being mounted upon a stationary vertical shaft, said rotor means having a series of laterally disposed rotor blades approximately semicircular in cross-sectional configuration mounted for rotation on said shaft, a housing mounted upon the roof of said electric vehicle for enclosure of said rotor means, said housing being rectangular and having at least one air inlet and outlet means on each side thereof to receive and discharge air currents from more than one direction, said inlet and outlet means being in communication with said laterally disposed rotor blades, a generator means within with the wider portion thereof being adjacent the casingwall and the narrower portion thereof being adjacent said rotor means. 3. The invention as defined in claim 1 wherein said generator means comprises a stationary shaft, said rotor means having a hub rotatably about said shaft, a series of statorwindings and a series of rotor windings, said stator windings being disposed on said shaft, said rotor windings being disposed upon said hub, and circuitry means in interconnection with said rotor windings to feed current produced thereby to said batteries. 4. The invention as defined in claim 3 wherein said rotor windings are successively wound in opposite d1- 1 rections to thereby produce direct current for transmission to said batteries. 5. In a wind driven turbine generator to recharge the batteries of an-electric vehicle the combination com- ..prising a rotatable wind driven rotor means, said means being mounted upon a stationary vertical shaft, said rotor means having a series of laterally disposed rotor blades approximately semicircular in cross-sectional configurationv mounted for rotation on said shaft, a housing for enclosure of said rotor means, said housing being provided with one air inlet duct at the forward end thereof and an oppositely positioned air exit opening, said housing being rotatably mounted with respect to the top. of said electricvehicle, and wind vane means I interconnected to the exterior of said housing to rotate said housing responsive to air current to constantly maintain said inlet openingfacing the direction of air current, a generator'means within saidhousing, said generator means comprising a rotor winding and a stator winding, said stator winding being mounted upon said shaft and concentrically with respect to said rotor blades, said rotor winding being in fixed interconnection with said rotor blades to rotate therewith about said stator winding, and electrical circuitry means interconnecting the voltage output of said generator to said batteries during rotation of said rotor blades. 6. In a wind driven turbine generator to recharge the batteries of an electric vehicle the combination comprising a rotatable wind driven rotor means, said means being mounted upon a sationary vertical shaft, said rotor means having a series of laterally disposed rotor blades approximately semicircular in cross-sectional configuration mounted for rotation on said shaft, a housing for enclosure of said rotor means, said housing being rotatably mountedupon the roof of said vehicle, there being one air inlet and one air outlet in said housing, and wind vane on the top of said housing, said wind vane being adapted to turn said housing responsive to wind direction so that said inlet constantly faces into said wind, a generator means within said housing, said generator means comprising a rotor winding and a stator winding, said stator winding being mounted upon said shaft and concentrically with respect to said rotor blades, said rotor winding being in fixed interconnection with said rotor blades to rotate therewith about said stator winding, and electrical circuitry means interconnecting the voltage output of said generator to said batteries during rotation of said rotor blades. 7. The invention as defined in claim 6 wherein said inlet opening is of a horn-shaped scoop design with the wider portion thereof being adjacent the casing wall and the narrower portion thereof being adjacent said rotor means. 8. The invention as defined in claim 7 wherein said generator means comprises a stationary shaft, said I rotor windings are successively wound in opposite dirotor means having a hub rotatably about said shaft, a series of stator windings and a series of rotor windings, said stator windings being disposed on said shaft, said rotor windings being disposed upon said hub, and circuitry means in interconnection with said rotor windings to feed current produced thereby to said batteries. 9. The invention as defined in claim 8 wherein said rections to thereby produce direct current for transmission to said batteries.

Electronic Work In Space   So in a basic sense, not much really changes, and it's possible, with a bit of work, to use off-the-shelf components to do the same job out in space. However, there's a subtler way in which earth-bound electronics do benefit from Earth's magnetic field. ... Electronics do not need a magnetic field to work .                                                               Challenges for Electronic Circuits in Space Applications  To set the stage for this discussion let me propose this scenario: imagine yourself as an astronaut sitting in the crew module of the NASA Orion spacecraft. You are stepping through your final equipment checklist for a voyage to Mars while sitting on top of a rocket, anticipating the final countdown to ignition of the largest rocket ever designed—the NASA Space Launch System. You are sitting 384 feet in the air on a massive, 130 metric ton configuration, the most capable and powerful launch vehicle in history. When you hear those famous words “gentlemen, we have ignition,” you will have 9.2 million pounds of thrust propelling you into outer space. The Orion spacecraft is being designed to take humans to Mars and into deep space where the temperature can approach over 2000°C, the radiation is deadly, and you will be travelling at speeds up to 20,000 mph.                                 Now , what quality grade of electronic components were selected for the control systems of your spacecraft? High reliability and devices with space heritage are key factors in the selection of components for space level applications. NASA generally specifies Level 1, qualified manufacturer list Class V (QMLV) devices, and they will always ask if there is a higher quality level available. Knowing the extensive selection process NASA uses for identifying electronic components for space flight applications, one should be confident sitting on top of that rocket. The Harsh Environmental Conditions of a Spacecraft and the Hazards Posed to the Electronics The first hurdle for space electronics to overcome is the vibration imposed by the launch vehicle. The demands placed on a rocket and its payload during launch are severe. Rocket launchers generate extreme noise and vibration. There are literally thousands of things that can go wrong and result in a ball of flame. When a satellite separates from the rocket in space, large shocks occur in the satellite’s body structure. Pyrotechnic shock is the dynamic structural shock that occurs when an explosion occurs on a structure. Pyroshock is the response of the structure to high frequency, high magnitude stress waves that propagate throughout the structure as a result of an explosive charge, like the ones used in a satellite ejection or the separation of two stages of a multistage rocket. Pyroshock exposure can damage circuit boards, short electrical components, or cause all sorts of other issues. Understanding the launch environment provides a greater appreciation for the shock and vibration requirements, and inspections imposed on electronic components designed for use in space level applications. Outgassing is another major concern. Plastics, glues, and adhesives can and do outgas. Vapor coming off of plastic devices can deposit material on optical devices, thereby degrading their performance. For instance, an automobile plastic dashboard can emit vapor that deposits a film on the windshield. This is a practical example I can attest to from personal experience. Using ceramic rather than plastic components eliminates this problem in electronics. Outgassing of volatile silicones in low Earth orbit (LEO) cause a cloud of contaminants around the spacecraft. Contamination from outgassing, venting, leaks, and thruster firing can degrade and modify the external surfaces of the spacecraft. High levels of contamination on surfaces can contribute to electrostatic discharge. Satellites are vulnerable to charging and discharging. For that reason, space applications require components with no floating metal. Satellite charging is a variation in the electrostatic potential of a satellite, with respect to the surrounding low density plasma around the satellite. The extent of the charging depends on the design of the satellite and the orbit. The two primary mechanisms responsible for charging are plasma bombardment and photoelectric effects. Discharges as high as 20,000 V have been known to occur on satellites in geosynchronous orbits. If protective design measures are not taken, electrostatic discharge, a buildup of energy from the space environment, can damage the devices. A design solution used in geosynchronous Earth orbit (GEO) is to coat all the outside surfaces of the satellite with a conducting material. The atmosphere in LEO is comprised of about 96% atomic oxygen. Oxygen exists in different forms. The oxygen that we breathe is O2. O3 occurs in Earth’s upper atmosphere, and O (one atom) is atomic oxygen. Atomic oxygen can react with organic materials on spacecraft exteriors and gradually damage them. Material erosion by atomic oxygen was noted on NASA’s first space shuttle missions, where the presence of atomic oxygen caused problems. Space shuttle materials looked frosty because they were actually being eroded and textured by the presence of atomic oxygen. NASA addressed this problem by developing a thin film coating that is immune to the reaction with atomic oxygen. Plastics are considerably sensitive to atomic oxygen and ionizing radiation. Coatings resistant to atomic oxygen are a common protection method for plastics. Another obstacle is the very high temperature fluctuations encountered by a spacecraft. A satellite orbiting around Earth can be divided into two phases; a sunlit phase and an eclipse phase. In the sunlit phase, the satellite is heated by the Sun and as the satellite moves around the back side or shadow side of the Earth, the temperature can change by as much as 300°C. Because it is closer to the Sun, the temperature fluctuations on a satellite in GEO stationary orbit will be much greater than the temperature variations on a satellite in LEO. It is interesting to note that during lunar day and night, the temperature on the surface of the Moon can vary from around –200°C to +200°C. It makes you wonder how it was even possible for a man to walk on the Moon. Here again, ceramic packages can withstand repeated temperature fluctuations, provide a greater level of hermeticity, and remain functional at higher power levels and temperatures. Ceramic packages provide higher reliability in harsh environments. So how do you dissipate the heat generated by the electronics? The accuracy and life expectancy of electronic devices can be degraded by sustained high temperatures. There are three ways of transferring heat: convective, diffusive, and radiative. In the vacuum of space there is no thermal convection or conduction taking place. Radiative heat transfer is the primary method of transferring heat in a vacuum, so satellites are cooled by radiating heat out into space. The vacuum of space is a favorable environment for tin whiskers, so prohibited materials are a concern. Pure tin, zinc, and cadmium plating are prohibited on IEEE parts and associated hardware in space. These materials are subject to the spontaneous growth of whiskers that can cause electrical shorts. Tin whiskers are electrically conductive, crystalline structures of tin that sometimes grow from surfaces where tin is used as a final finish. Devices with pure tin leads can suffer from the tin whiskers phenomenon that can cause electrical shorts. Using lead-based solder eliminates the risk of shorts occurring when devices are used in high stress applications. Finally, the space radiation environment can have damaging effects on spacecraft electronics. There are large variations in the levels of and types of radiation a spacecraft may encounter. Missions flying at low Earth orbits, highly elliptical orbits, geostationary orbits, and interplanetary missions have vastly different environments. In addition, those environments are changing. Radiation sources are affected by the activity of the Sun. The solar cycle is divided into two activity phases: the solar minimum and the solar maximum. Will your spacecraft mission occur during a solar minimum, a solar maximum period, or both? The key point here is that there are vastly different environments in space. The requirements for a launch vehicle are much different from that of a geostationary satellite or a Mars rover. Each space program has to be evaluated in terms of reliability, radiation tolerance, environmental stresses, the launch date, and the expected life cycle of the mission. Analog Devices has been supporting the aerospace and defense markets for over 40 years with high reliability devices. Areas of focus are electronic warfare, radar, communications, avionics, unmanned systems, and missile and smart munitions applications. Today’s focus is on the space market. Analog Devices has the depth and breadth of technologies that spans the complete signal chain from sensors, amplifiers, RF and microwave devices, ADCs, DACs, and output devices that provide solutions to the challenging requirements of the aerospace and defense industry.                               The satellite industry’s revenue was $208 billion in 2015. There are four segments to the satellite industry: satellite manufacturing, satellite launch equipment, ground-based equipment, and satellite services. Satellite services is by far the largest segment and continues to be a key driver for the overall satellite industry. So, what has a satellite done for you lately? I believe most people would be surprised at just how much modern life depends on satellites services. If the 1381 satellites currently in operation happen to shut down, modern life would be significantly disrupted. Global finance, telecommunications, transportation, weather, national defense, aviation, and many other sectors rely heavily on satellite services. There are three primary segments in the satellite services market: satellite navigation, satellite communications, and Earth observation. Navigation satellites are used for the global distribution of navigation signals and data in order to provide positioning, location, and timing services. Examples of available services are traffic management, surveying and mapping, fleet and asset management, and autonomous driving technology—driverless cars and trucks are expected to be the next big thing. Telecommunication satellites or SATCOM examples are television, telephone, broadband internet, and satellite radio. These systems can provide uninterrupted communications services in the event of disasters that damage ground-based telecommunication networks. Both business and commercial aircraft in-flight internet and mobile entertainment are growing segments of the market. Earth observation satellites are used for the transmission of environmental data. Space-based observations of the Earth promote sustainable agriculture and aid in the response to climate change, land and wildlife management, and energy resources management. Earth observation satellites aid in the safeguard of water resources and improve weather forecasts, so there is a very wide and growing range of satellite services. So what types of electronic systems are used on satellites? The basic elements of a spacecraft are divided into two sections: the platform or bus and the payload. The platform consists of the five basic subsystems that support the payload: the structural subsystem, the telemetry subsystem, tracking and command subsystems, the electric power and distribution subsystem, the thermal control subsystem, and the attitude and velocity control subsystem. The structural subsystem is the mechanical structure and provides stiffness to withstand stress and vibration. It also provides shielding from radiation for the electronic devices. The telemetry, tracking, and command subsystems include receivers, transmitters, antennas, sensors for temperature, current, voltage, and tank pressure. It also provides the status of various spacecraft subsystems. The electric power and distribution subsystems convert solar into electrical power and charge the spacecraft batteries. The thermal control subsystem helps to protect electronic equipment from extreme temperatures. And finally, the attitude and velocity control subsystem is the orbit control system that consists of sensors to measure vehicle orientation and actuators (reaction wheels, thrusters), and to apply the torques and forces needed to orient the vehicle in the correct orbital position. Typical components of the attitude and control system include Sun and Earth sensors, star sensors, momentum wheels, inertial measurement units (IMUs), and the electronics required to process the signals and control the satellites position. The payload is the equipment in support of the primary mission. For GPS navigation satellites, this would include atomic clocks, navigation signal generators, and high power RF amplifiers and antennas. For telecommunications systems, the payload would include antennas, transmitters and receivers, low noise amplifiers, mixers and local oscillators, demodulator and modulators, and power amplifiers. Earth observation payloads would include microwave and infrared sounding instruments for weather forecasting, visible infrared imaging radiometers, ozone mapping instruments, visible and infrared cameras, and sensors. The integration of Analog Devices and Hittite Microwave a few years ago now allows us to cover the dc to 110 GHz spectrum. ADI solutions range from navigation, radar, communication systems below 6 GHz, satellite communications, electronic warfare, radar systems in the microwave spectrum, radar systems, and satellite imaging in the millimeter wave spectrum. Analog Devices offers more than 1000 components covering all RF and microwave signal chains and applications. The combination of Hittite’s full spectrum of RF function blocks, attenuators, LNAs, PAs, and RF switches, in conjunction with Analog Devices portfolio of high performance linear products, high speed ADCs, DACs, active mixers, and PLLs can provide end-to-end system solutions. The Natural Space Radiation Environment Effects on Electronic Devices The radiation effects on electronic devices are a primary concern for space level applications. Outside the protective cover of the Earth’s atmosphere, the solar system is filled with radiation. The natural space radiation environment can damage electronic devices and the effects range from a degradation in parametric performance to a complete functional failure. These effects can result in reduced mission lifetimes and major satellite system failures. The radiation environment close to Earth is divided into two categories: particles trapped in the Van Allen belts and transient radiation. The particles trapped in the Van Allen belts are composed of energetic protons, electrons, and heavy ions. The transient radiation consists of galactic cosmic ray particles and particles from solar events (coronal mass ejections and solar flares). There are two primary ways that radiation can effect satellite electronics: total ionizing dose (TID) and single event effects (SEEs). TID is a long-term failure mechanism vs. SEE, which is an instantaneous failure mechanism. SEE is expressed in terms of a random failure rate, whereas TID is a failure rate that can be described by a mean time to failure.                                                       Sources of ionizing radiation in interplanetary space TID is a time dependent, accumulated charge in a device over the lifetime of a mission. A particle passing through a transistor generates electron hole pairs in the thermal oxide. The accumulated charges can create leakage currents, degrade the gain of a device, affect timing characteristics, and, in some cases, result in complete functional failure. The total accumulated dose depends on the orbit and time. In LEO, the main source of radiation is from electrons and protons (inner belt) and in GEO, the primary source is from electrons (outer belt) and solar protons. It is worth noting that device shielding can be used to effectively reduce the accumulation of TID radiation. SEEs are caused by a single, high energy particle passing through a device and injecting a charge in the circuit. Typically, SEEs are divided into soft errors and hard errors. The Joint Electron Device Engineering Council (JEDEC) defines soft errors as nondestructive, functional errors induced by energetic ion strikes. Soft errors are a subset of SEEs and includes single event upsets (SEUs), multiple-bit upsets (MBUs), single event functional interrupts (SEFIs), single event transients (SETs), and single event latch-up (SEL). A SEL is where the formation of parasitic bipolar action in CMOS wells induces a low impedance path between power and ground, producing a high current condition. Therefore, a SEL can cause latent and hard errors. Examples of soft errors would be bit flips or changes in the state of memory cells or registers. A SET is a transient voltage pulse generated by a charge injected into the device from a high energy particle. These transient pulses can cause SEFIs. SEFIs are soft errors that cause the component to reset, lock-up, or otherwise malfunction in a detectable way, but does not require power cycling of the device to restore operability. A SEFI is often associated with an upset in a control bit or register. JEDEC defines a hard error as an irreversible change in operation that is typically associated with permanent damage to one or more elements of a device or circuit (for example, gate oxide rupture, or destructive latch-up events). The error is hard because the data is lost and the component or device no longer functions properly, even with a power reset. SEE hard errors are potentially destructive. Examples of hard errors are single event latch-up (SEL), single event gate rupture (SEGR), and single event burnout (SEB). SEEs hard errors can destroy the device, drag down the bus voltage, or even damage the system power supply. Technology Trends and Radiation Effects In terms of the satellite payload, instruments are becoming more complex. At one time communication satellites were basically bent pipe repeater architectures that would relay signals. Today they are multibeam and have on-board processing (OBP) architectures. More complex electronics translate into greater risk from radiation effects. High volume, small satellite constellations are using more commercial grade plastic components. Commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) devices generally tend to be more sensitive to radiation effects. Also with small satellite, there is less structural mass shielding the electronics. With finer IC geometries and thinner oxides, the sensitivity to TID radiation effects is reduced, and the TID tolerance is improved. On the other hand, SEEs increase with reduced IC scaling. Less energy is required to produce SET and SEU. With higher frequency devices, SETs can turn into more SEUs, increasing the number of SEFIs. Mitigation techniques used to address higher speed transient signals can be more challenging. Analog Devices’ Efforts in Support of Space Level Applications The space products group leverages Analog Devices’ portfolio of devices in the support of the space industry. We have proprietary silicon on insulator (SOI) processes that provide radiation tolerance for space level applications. In some cases we modify core silicon to enhance the radiation tolerance of devices. We also have the ability to port designs over to radiation hardened SOI processes. We integrate the die into hermetic, ceramic packages and characterize the device over the extended military temperature range. We target the development and release of fully qualified, Class S QMLV products using the defense logistics agency (DLA) MIL-PRF 38535 system for monolithic devices, and MIL-PRF 38534 for Class K hybrid and multichip modules. For radiation inspection we currently offer high dose rate (HDR) and low dose rate (LDR) tested models and for new product releases we offer single event effects test data. Analog Devices offers commercial, industrial, enhance products (EPs), automotive, military, and space qualified devices. EP devices are designed to meet mission critical and high reliability applications, primarily in the aerospace and defence market. Other product grades include military grade monolithic devices, multichip modules, QMLQ and QMLH devices, space qualified monolithic devices, and multichip modules designed under military specifications as QMLV and QMLK devices. Analog Devices also offers space qualified Class K die for customers who are developing hybrid or multichip modules solutions. Class K qualified die are offered against standard aerospace data sheets and customer source control drawings. We offer EPs, plastic encapsulated devices designed to meet mission critical requirements, and high reliability application requirements. With customer input, we are initiating a new device product category for space applications that we have defined as enhanced products plus (EP+) devices. Our customers are requiring improvements in size, weight, power, higher performance, wider bandwidths, increased operational frequencies, payload flexibility, and optimized reliability. Spacecraft designers are being pressed to use commercial devices in order to meet high levels of performance in increasingly smaller, lower power, and lower cost spacecraft. The internet in the sky is a good example. It is estimated that 60% of the world’s population does not have access to the internet. To address this market, companies are planning to deploy large constellations of small, low cost satellites circling the Earth that will enable access to a worldwide communication network. Analog Devices is working with customers to define EP+ to address this evolving new market. EPs provide COTS solutions for high reliability applications with no additional cost of custom upscreening. EPs are plastic encapsulated devices released with a military temperature range of –55°C to +125°C. In addition to requiring an extended temperature range, EP customers require devices to be lead free and whisker free. They require devices with a controlled manufacturing baseline, a standalone data sheet, and an EP change notification process. These devices also have an associated V62 vendor item drawing under the defense logistics agency documentation system. Currently released EPs are identified by a special EP suffix and have a separate standalone data sheet. As noted, Analog Devices is also developing a new device concept for space level applications EPs, plus for LEO systems and high altitude applications. We currently support EP+ against source control drawings. ADI would like to offer a standard COTS grade device for space level applications. With the EP+ approach we envision a device somewhere between standard EP devices and military 883-grade devices, providing COTS solutions for space level applications without additional cost of custom upscreening. With the EP+ approach, we can generate COTS devices and provide wafer lot traceability and lot specific radiation inspection data. The key issue is determining the proper balance between reliability and cost as depicted in the curve in Figure 1. The more screening required, the higher the unit cost. In defining this new product category, the current challenge for the satellite industry and for Analog Devices is to define the optimum screening level vs. cost point for commercial devices used in space level applications. Figure 1. Reliability test and inspections drive electronic component cost. To summarize—Analog Devices’ goal is to deliver a complete product for space level applications and not just a component. We offer the industry’s most comprehensive portfolio with industry-leading device reliability We provide single lot date code procurement Advanced packaging and characterization to meet harsh environmental challenges Gold and tin lead hot solder dip lead finishes to address tin whiskers We provide no prohibited materials certification Comprehensive certificates of conformance with material traceability Comprehensive QMLV flight unit test reports Electrical performance is production tested over the extended temperature ranges –55°C to +125°C We offer fully qualified QMLV devices with 100% screening and quality conformance inspection We provide radiation qualified devices … HDR, LDR, SEE Long product life cycles are a cornerstone of ADI’s business strategy We have a dedicated aerospace and defense team for product support and applications support Analog Devices currently offers over 90 standard generic space qualified devices with greater than 350 models in different grades and packages. A few of the new featured space qualified products are the ADA4084-2S, ADA4610-2S, and ADuM7442S devices. The 5962R1324501VXA (ADA4084AF/QMLR) is a new low noise, low power, space qualified precision amplifier offered as QMLV space qualified device available against a SMD drawing. The device has 10 MHz unity-gain bandwidth and rail-to-rail inputs and outputs. These amplifiers are excellent for single-supply applications requiring both ac and precision dc performance. The 5962R1420701VXA (ADA4610-2BF/QMLR) are space qualified, dual-channel, precision, very low noise, low input bias current wide bandwidth JFET devices. The amplifiers are especially suited for high impedance sensor amplification and precise current measurements. The ADuM7442R703F is a space qualified 25 Mbps, quad-channel digital isolator with three forward and one reverse channel. The devices offer bidirectional communications. The space qualified devices offer galvanic isolation, which means that the input and output circuits have no direct electrical connection. They offer advantages in size, weight, power, and reliability over competing solutions.                             Analog and Digital Circuits Analog Electronics Most of the fundamental electronic components -- resistors, capacitors, inductors, diodes, transistors, and operational amplifiers -- are all inherently analog. Circuits built with a combination of solely these components are usually analog. Analog circuits are usually complex combinations of op amps, resistors, caps, and other foundational electronic components. This is an example of a class B analog audio amplifier. Analog circuits can be very elegant designs with many components, or they can be very simple, like two resistors combining to make a voltage divider. In general, though, analog circuits are much more difficult to design than those which accomplish the same task digitally. It takes a special kind of analog circuit wizard to design an analog radio receiver, or an analog battery charger; digital components exist to make those designs much simpler. Analog circuits are usually much more susceptible to noise (small, undesired variations in voltage). Small changes in the voltage level of an analog signal may produce significant errors when being processed. Digital Electronics Digital circuits operate using digital, discrete signals. These circuits are usually made of a combination of transistors and logic gates and, at higher levels, microcontrollers or other computing chips. Most processors, whether they're big beefy processors in your computer, or tiny little microcontrollers, operate in the digital realm. Digital circuits make use of components like logic gates, or more complicated digital ICs (usually represented by rectangles with labeled pins extending from them). Digital circuits usually use a binary scheme for digital signaling. These systems assign two different voltages as two different logic levels -- a high voltage (usually 5V, 3.3V, or 1.8V) represents one value and a low voltage (usually 0V) represents the other. Although digital circuits are generally easier to design, they do tend to be a bit more expensive than an equally tasked analog circuit. Analog and Digital Combined It's not rare to see a mixture of analog and digital components in a circuit. Although microcontrollers are usually digital beasts, they often have internal circuitry which enables them to interface with analog circuitry (analog-to-digital converters, pulse-width modulation, and digital-to-analog converters. An analog-to-digital converter (ADC) allows a microcontroller to connect to an analog sensor (like photocells or temperature sensors), to read in an analog voltage. The less common digital-to-analog converter allows a microcontroller to produce analog voltages, which is handy when it needs to make sound.                            Resources and Going Further Now that you know the difference between analog and digital signals, we'd suggest checking out the Analog to Digital Conversion tutorial. Working with microcontrollers, or really any logic-based electronics, means working in the digital realm most of the time. If you want to sense light, temperature, or interface a microcontroller with a variety of other analog sensors, you'll need to know how to convert the analog voltage they produce into a digital value. Also, consider reading our Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) tutorial. PWM is a trick microcontrollers can use to make a digital signal appear to be analog. Here are some other subjects which deal heavily with digital interfaces: Binary Logic Levels Serial Communication SPI Communication I2C Communication IR Communication Or, if you'd like to delve further into the analog realm, consider checking out subject : Voltage Dividers Resistors Diodes Capacitors Transistors                 electronic reliability in space Components for new space systems must still meet requirements for radiation tolerance and electrical, thermal, and mechanical reliability. However, a new class of space-plastic–grade ICs can provide cost and size benefits compared to traditional “full space” components for lower-altitude missions. For the next 40-plus years, the consequences of losing any spacecraft to electronics failure were generally catastrophic. It goes without saying that manned space missions have always carried the highest priority for safety to protect their priceless passengers. But the costs of building unmanned satellites soared into the hundreds of millions of dollars, even exceeding the billion-dollar level for advanced government satellite programs. Satellites became critical to many facets of everyday life: for television viewing, weather forecasting, navigation, and, of course, military uses. The cost of launching was so high that only a few countries could afford the endeavor. With such astronomical (pun intended) consequences of failure, government spaceflight organizations and spacecraft manufacturers created requirements and standards to ensure the robustness of electronic components in space. You may hear spacecraft engineers refer to such components as triple-E parts, which is shorthand for electrical, electronic, and electromechanical components. Manufacturers typically implemented specifications by creating device-specific source control drawings (SCDs), which focused on testing integrated circuits (ICs) for radiation performance, operating life, thermal performance, and mechanical resistance to forces endured during launch. A common mission profile for SCDs was based on 15 years of operation in geosynchronous Earth orbit (GEO), approximately 36,000 km above Earth. That’s quite a change from those first rockets, which flew just above 100 km for only a few minutes! Mil standards By 1995, the U.S. government (namely, the Department of Defense) had released the MIL-PRF-38535 standard, which created consistent qualification, testing, and reliability standards for military and space ICs. MIL-PRF-38535 defines requirements for IC manufacturers if they wish to be listed on a qualified manufacturer list (QML), along with requirements for ICs to qualify to specific classes. Classes M, N, and Q are intended for terrestrial applications, while Class V is defined for space applications, requiring hermetically sealed packaging. Class V devices are typically tested for radiation tolerance during development and are not radiation-tested in production. MIL-PRF-38535 defines an additional quality level — radiation hardness assured (RHA) — that requires the screening of each production lot of an IC to meet a specified radiation performance level (more on radiation performance in a minute). Radiation-tolerant ICs that meet QML Class V requirements are often referred to as QMLV devices, while devices that also meet the RHA specifications are called QMLV-RHA or, simply, RHA. In 2012, MIL-PRF-38535 was revised to add a Class Y, covering non-hermetically sealed, high-pin-count land-grid-array– and column-grid-array–packaged devices. Since the creation of the QMLV designation, designers of high-value, mission-critical spacecraft have come to rely on QMLV and RHA ICs to ensure mission success. The high level of quality and reliability of these components results in a higher cost, but in the intended application, the cost can be justified due to the level of risk mitigation needed. Cost factors In recent years, changes in a number of factors have combined to reduce the cost of access to space. Both scientific and commercial organizations have shown that lower-cost small satellites (smallsats) can also be of value alongside the traditional “big birds” deployed for long-life missions. Smallsats in low Earth orbit (LEO) have provided useful data on a variety of scientific Earth observation missions, with mission lives as short as a week. It is now possible for researchers, entrepreneurs, and students to get a smallsat into LEO at a relatively low cost. Commercial launch operators also offer “ride-sharing” for smallsats on launches in which the primary mission is for a larger satellite. NASA and its commercial partners deliver smallsats to the International Space Station (ISS) aboard re-supply missions, wherein the satellites are then deployed into space by astronauts living onboard the ISS. This new array of satellite missions has given rise to a much wider variation in risk tolerance and cost sensitivity compared to traditional missions. Engineers designing smallsats for LEO missions with shorter mission durations and lower-cost targets have begun to use commercial-off-the-shelf (COTS) ICs, which receive no special screening from manufacturers to address the hazards of spaceflight. These COTS ICs are encapsulated in plastic packaging, which reduces their size compared to the hermetically sealed ceramic packages of space-grade components, and have electrical performance benefits. However, the use of COTS components can expose a mission to significant risks, and selecting, screening, and testing ICs to mitigate these risks can end up costing many times more than the ICs themselves. Another term used to refer to plastic-packaged ICs used in space is plastic encapsulated microcircuits (PEMs). PEMs may be COTS or specially screened or tested. There has also been interest in using automotive-qualified, or AEC-Q100 (“Q1” for short), grade parts in space. While these devices receive additional testing and qualification compared to commercial ICs, these tests are focused more on the terrestrial environment than the extreme environment of space. The use of COTS and Q1 ICs can also require compromises in system design and operational readiness when the radiation hardness and other reliability factors of the components are not well-controlled. Due to the desire for ICs to deliver the necessary quality and reliability for shorter, lower-altitude missions at a lower cost point compared to QMLV devices, a number of IC suppliers have introduced new grades of IC, which fit between COTS and space grade (QMLV) from a cost perspective. These “new space” or “space plastic” ICs use plastic packaging but undergo significant additional testing and qualification compared to COTS and Q1 devices. Fig. 1compares COTS and Q1 ICs to high-reliability parts. Fig. 1: Comparison of different reliability grades from Texas Instruments. Next, We’ll discuss the risks of COTS and Q1 ICs in space and how the enhanced quality and reliability of space plastic ICs can enable success for shorter LEO smallsat missions. Radiation The tragic story of Telsat underscored the need to address radiation performance in space-borne electronics. If you don’t have (or plan to get) a Ph.D. in nuclear physics, you can use a couple of analogies to understand radiation effects on electronics. I’ll categorize effects into two primary categories: total dose effects and single-event effects (SEEs). Consider total dose effects analogous to sunburn: The longer a spacecraft is in space and the farther it is from Earth, the higher the total dose received and the resulting sunburn. Engineers quantify radiation effects like this as total ionizing dose (TID), measured in units of kilorads (krad). SEEs are more like a lightning strike: The probability of an occurrence at any moment is low, but the longer a spacecraft is out in the “thunderstorm” of space, the more likely it is to be struck by a highly energetic particle that can cause failure. The sensitivity of an electronic component to SEEs is measured as a quantity called linear energy transfer, which is the energy transferred from a particle to a substance measured in units of MeV∙cm2/mg. A particular type of SEE that designers are particularly concerned with is single-event latchup (SEL), which is a high-current condition that can destroy an IC quickly. We can “thank our lucky stars” that Earth’s magnetic field protects our earthbound electronics and delicate bodies from the harsh radiation environment of space. Traditional space-grade (QMLV and RHA) ICs have been designed, qualified, and tested to meet all specifications to TID levels as high as 1 Megarad (Mrad). For the sake of comparison, an unshielded satellite in GEO could absorb a TID of over 20 Mrad in just one year. In practice, shielding satellites can drastically reduce the dosage, but long-life GEO missions typically look for ICs with ratings of at least 100 krad. In contrast, the same unshielded satellite in LEO would absorb only about 100 krad in a year. While smallsats in LEO cannot typically support heavy shielding, the shorter mission profiles mean that TID requirements of 10–30 krad are often sufficient for these applications. Beyond defining the necessary radiation tolerance level, there are two primary challenges when trying to use a COTS IC for spaceflight: measuring the device’s radiation tolerance and potential variation in that tolerance. Testing ICs for radiation tolerance can be an expensive and time-consuming process due to the specialized radiation test equipment required. For SEE testing, there are only two cyclotrons in the entire U.S. with the heavy-ion beam capability to test devices for spaceflight cost-effectively. Sometimes, engineers can find radiation test data from academic studies or third-party testing. Such test data may be less accurate than testing by an IC manufacturer. Plus, researchers and third parties typically don’t have access to hidden test modes and may not fully understand the proper operation, specifications, and testing of the device. Second, the lot-to-lot variation of the radiation tolerance of an IC can be huge. It has been shown numerous times that the radiation performance of a particular IC can vary greatly from one wafer fabrication lot to another. Today’s high-volume semiconductor wafer fabs are great at controlling electrical parameters but do not control for radiation performance. For example, National Semiconductor’s space-grade LM108 operational amplifier could produce a lot rated to 100 krad one month and have another lot fail at 30 krad the next month. For this reason, radiation lot acceptance testing (RLAT) has been a fundamental pillar of manufacturing ICs for space since the days of SCDs. COTS ICs, even within a single reel, can come from different wafer lots, even different wafer fab factories, yielding drastic swings in radiation tolerance. Flexibility in wafer supply is a benefit for commercial applications but a risk for space missions. Space-plastic–grade components will go through at least one-time radiation testing by the manufacturer to ensure the validity of the radiation performance and eliminate ICs unsuitable for spaceflight. The TID specification varies by manufacturer but typically targets a TID of 30 krad and single-event latchup immunity to 40 MeV∙cm2/mg, in line with radiation levels within LEO. Texas Instruments’ space-enhanced product line goes the extra mile by undergoing RLAT to 20-krad TID in every production lot, in addition to a one-time characterization to 30 krad. In addition, space plastic products are manufactured within a single controlled baseline, which means one wafer fab, one assembly site, and one material set, and greatly reduces sources of variability. Mechanical and thermal concerns In the extreme environment of space, electronic systems are subjected to extreme temperatures and associated thermal cycles, which cause mechanical stress on ICs and their packages. In LEO, satellites orbit the earth at least 12 times a day, passing from the extreme heat of direct sunlight to the extreme cold of darkness in space. This can result in thermal gradients of over 3°C (5.5°F) per minute, even inside the relatively temperature-controlled internal volume of a spacecraft. Components can be subjected to temperatures as low as –55°C (–67°F) and as high as 125°C (257°F). These thermal conditions can induce a number of different failure modes, including package and die cracking, bond-wire breakage, moisture ingress, die delamination, tin whisker growth, and solder-joint failure. Low-cost packaging materials used in COTS components are susceptible to all of these failures, while space plastic ICs utilize enhanced-reliability material sets and undergo specialized testing to ensure robustness. Because of the reliability concerns associated with lead (Pb)-free solder, the military and aerospace industries have been allowed to continue using tin-lead (SnPb) solder. When a typical commercial Pb-free solder ball is combined with SnPb solder, reflow temperature mismatch and insufficient mixing of the two types of solder can create voiding and a solder joint too fragile to withstand board- and system-level temperature cycling and vibration. For ball-grid-array (BGA) packages in space-plastic–grade ICs, SnPb solder balls are used to eliminate the risk of incompatibility within the SnPb solder profile. Typical commercial ICs are tested only under thermal/moisture testing such as temperature cycling and highly accelerated stress testing (HAST) at the time of development, whereas space plastic ICs typically undergo temperature cycle and HAST lot acceptance continuously throughout production. This practice ensures that any anomalies in package performance can be contained before reaching the customer. It is possible to select packaging materials like die attach epoxy, mold compound, leadframe, and bond wire for robustness. Typically, formulations of die attach and mold compounds are proprietary to the manufacturer, but there are clear variations across the industry. Space plastic IC makers should select the highest-performing compounds regardless of cost. A failure mode of particular concern in harsh environments is delamination, wherein the silicon die separates from the package leadframe, and can lead to performance degradation or, in extreme cases, all-out failure of the die. IC package leadframes can have varying performance with respect to cracking and die delamination. One well-studied technique to improve resistance to die delamination is roughening. This increases the adhesion of the die to the leadframe in conjunction with the correct die attach compound. Roughening adds cost to leadframe manufacturing and, therefore, is not commonly used in the manufacturing of COTS ICs, but it is standard practice for space plastic ICs. Bond wires can also be a source of failure for ICs in spaceflight. While copper (Cu) bond wire is well-proven in multiple terrestrial applications, and ongoing process improvements have resulted in increased uniformity and improved overall field defect parts per million, spacecraft manufacturers and government organizations still have concerns about the use of Cu wire in space components. A few key issues identified with Cu wire bonds are: Bond integrity issues with Cu wire bonding to aluminum bond pads Corrosion due to mold compound interaction or moisture ingress Bond-wire neck breaks due to coefficient of thermal expansion mismatch during temperature cycling While many COTS ICs are manufactured with low-cost Cu wire, space plastic components are manufactured with gold wire, which has been proven in high-reliability applications. Tin (Sn) whisker growth is a widely studied phenomenon in the aerospace industry and can be observed in ICs in leaded packages that have an Sn-based lead finish. Space plastic IC makers ensure that matte-Sn and other high-Sn content lead finishes are not used on such components. For BGA packages, many commercial IC manufacturers moved to high-Sn content solder in order to eliminate Pb-based solder balls, which is a government requirement for commercial applications. Outgassing Outgassing is the release of gas from any material and has been demonstrated in numerous mold compounds used in plastic IC packaging. While this phenomenon has not typically been an issue for terrestrial applications, it can be of particular concern in space. The vacuum environment of space can increase the amount of outgassing compared to atmospheric conditions on Earth. Furthermore, in spacecraft, gases released from IC packages and other sources can condense during extreme cold, creating reduced image quality on optical sensors or other moisture-related failures. NASA began testing materials for outgassing in 1967 and developed the American Society for Testing and Materials E595 specification, which requires that collected volatile condensable materials are less than 0.1% and the total mass loss is less than 1% after vacuum testing. In order to eliminate risk from outgassing in space applications, space plastic ICs use low-outgassing mold compounds that meet NASA requirements. Summary Efforts to ensure the quality and reliability of electronics in spacecraft have continued to evolve since the initial failure of Telstar. The evolution of the spaceflight industry has recently created an opportunity to use electronic components without the full testing and qualification of traditional QMLV components. However, components for these new space systems must still meet mission requirements for radiation tolerance and electrical, thermal, and mechanical reliability. The new class of space-plastic–grade ICs can provide cost and size benefits compared to traditional “full space” components while still contributing to the success of shorter, lower-altitude missions. Space Is Opening Up for Electronics Design This Special Project on Space Electronics seeks to help make the opportunities in space electronics more accessible by introducing these technologies and design experiences. It starts by discussing the trends and opportunities from this new era in space electronics. It then goes on to provide insights into the design challenges, best practices, tools, and components of electronics design for a space environment. A new era in Space Electronics The development of reusable rockets is lowering barriers to both scientific and commercial exploration of space, stimulating increasing interest and investment in space electronics. This Special Project provides designers with a look at the technologies and design practices needed for creating space-worthy electronic designs. These may include, but not be limited to ICs, ASICs, flex-cable, connectors, thermal management for electronics, Rad hard techniques, space-related testing methods, Apollo 1960s electronics and more. EMC in space: The James Webb space telescope Testing for EMC on a spacecraft isn't unlike testing for terrestrial equipment, except for the fact that spacecrafts live in a different electromagnetic environment. The convergence of traditional and new space electronics solutions A hybrid approach allows a design team to implement a rad-hard functional base in conjunction with the latest state-of-the-art COTS technologies. AI and Machine Learning: Shaking up the space industry Today’s increasingly ambitious mission requirements are demanding higher levels of autonomy and greater navigational precision from spacecraft, requiring more than logic-based AI. High-precision space navigation to small comets and asteroids; entry, descent and landing (EDL) on moons and planets; and, rendezvous and proximity operations (RPO) with both cooperative and uncooperative targets all need sensing and perception capabilities provided by vision-based systems. Changing trends in designing space electronics Space electronics has moved-on considerably from the bespoke, radiation-hardened guidance computer and hand-woven memories used on the Apollo missions. Today's avionics are millions of times more powerful than that used to land man on the moon! Safe and Affordable Space Travel Starts With Sourcing Commercial space tourism is on the rise, at a fraction of its predecessor’s cost, creating a cause for passenger safety concerns. One crucial aspect of space flight safety is radiation shielding and mitigation, which New Space ventures have not thoroughly addressed in the past. Traditional space radiation mitigation strategies are costly, yet New Space mitigation techniques may not be suitable for safety critical missions. A solution to this cost-safety tradeoff is Sub-QML hardware electronic devices, which are radiation-hardened by design, yet available at a lower price point due to reduced screening levels. Mission Critical Space Flight Systems Stay Rad Hard To understand the effects of radiation on electronic systems and components, we explore the effects of various space radiation environments and their impact on commercial “New Space” Decrease time to market and cost for the newspace market by using radiation-tolerant solutions based on COTS devices ATmegaS64M1 MCU allows customers to begin development with a commercial device before moving to a pinout compatible, qualified radiation-tolerant version                              Developing radiation-hardened systems for space applications has a history of long lead times and high costs to achieve the highest level of reliability for multi-year missions in a harsh environment.  NewSpace and other critical aerospace applications require faster development and reduced costs. To meet these needs, a new microcontroller (MCU) that combines specified radiation performance with low-cost development associated with Commercial Off-The-Shelf (COTS) devices is now available from Microchip Technology Inc. (NASDAQ: MCHP). The ATmegaS64M1 is the second 8-bit megaAVR® MCU from Microchip that uses a development approach called COTS-to-radiation-tolerant. This approach takes a proven automotive-qualified device, the ATmega64M1 in this case, and creates pinout compatible versions in both high-reliability plastic and space-grade ceramic packages. The devices are designed to meet radiation tolerances with the following targeted performances: Fully immune from Single-Event Latchup (SEL) up to 62 MeV.cm²/mg No Single-Event Functional Interrupts (SEFI) which secure memory integrity Accumulated Total Ionizing Dose (TID) between 20 to 50 Krad(Si) Single Event Upset (SEU) characterization for all functional blocks The new device joins the ATmegaS128, a radiation-tolerant MCU that has already been designed into several critical space missions including a Mars exploration plus a megaconstellation of several hundred Low Earth Orbit (LEO) satellites. The ATmega64M1 COTS device, along with its full development toolchain including development kits and code configurator, can be used to begin development of hardware, firmware and software. When the final system is ready for the prototype phase or production, the COTS device can be replaced with a pin-out compatible, radiation-tolerant version in a 32-lead ceramic package (QFP32) with the same functionality as the original device. This leads to significant cost savings while also reducing development time and risk. “Our COTS-to-radiation-tolerant approach results in a no-compromise, space-grade component and not merely an up-screened or enhanced device that’s targeted to the aerospace industry,” said Patrick Sauvage, director of Microchip’s aerospace business unit. “Developing with a COTS device that can be swapped out for a fully functional high-rel plastic or ceramic equivalent with the same pinout reduces development time, costs and risk for our customers.” The ATmegaS64M1 meets the high operating temperature range of -55° C to +125° C. It is the first COTS-to-radiation-tolerant MCU to combine a Controller Area Network (CAN) bus, Digital-to-Analog Converter (DAC) and motor control capabilities. These features make it ideal for a variety of subsystems like remote terminal controllers and data handling functions for satellites, constellations, launchers or critical avionic applications. For more information visit www.microchip.com/ATmegaS64M1. Development Support To ease the design process and accelerate time to market, Microchip offers the STK 600 complete development board for the ATmegaS64M1, giving designers a quick start to develop code with advanced features for prototyping and testing new designs. The device is supported by Atmel Studio Integrated Development Environment (IDE) for developing, debugging and software libraries. Availability and Packaging The devices are available today for sampling and volume production in four derivatives: ATmegaS64M1-KH-E in ceramic prototype QFP32 package ATmegaS64M1-KH-MQ, ceramic space-grade QFP32 package, QMLQ qualified ATmegaS64M1-KH-SV, ceramic space-grade QFP32 package, QMLV qualified  ATmegaS64M1-MD-HP in plastic QFP32 package, AQEC high reliability qualified for volume program .          COTS Arm Core MCUs deliver quick prototyping for space applications Microchip’s COTS-to-radiation–tolerant and radiation-hardened Arm Core MCUs enable designers to start prototyping faster and at a lower cost . Microchip Technology Inc. has launched the space industry’s first Arm-based microcontrollers (MCUs) that combine the benefits of commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) technology with space-qualified versions that have scalable levels of radiation performance. This allows designers to start prototyping with a commercial device before moving to a radiation-qualified version, which cuts development time and cost. The new SAMV71Q21RT radiation-tolerant and SAMRH71 radiation-hardened MCUs are based on the automotive-qualified SAMV71 and implement the Arm Cortex-M7 system-on-chip (SoC). This enables more integration, cost reduction, and higher performance in space systems, said Microchip. Software developers can start their designs with a lower-cost COTS SAMV71 device before moving to a space-grade component. Both COTS devices use the same software development toolchain, including software libraries, board support package (BSP), and operating system (OS) first level of porting. All software development can be swapped out to a radiation-tolerant or radiation-hardened version in a high-reliability plastic package or space-grade ceramic package. Microchip said that the SAMV71Q21RT radiation-tolerant MCU reuses the full COTS mask set and offers pinout compatibility, so designers can quickly scale from COTS to qualified space parts.              The SAMV71Q21RT can be used in NewSpace applications such as low earth orbit (LEO) satellite constellations and robotics. The SAMV71Q21RT ensures an accumulated TID of 30 Krad (Si) with latchup immunity and is nondestructive against heavy ions. The SAMRH71 radiation-hardened MCU is designed for more critical sub-systems like gyroscopes and star tracker equipment and deep-space applications. It also features dedicated SpaceWire and MIL-STD-1553 interfaces for control and high-speed data management up to 200 Mbits/s. Radiation performance includes: Accumulated TID of more than 100 Krad (Si) No Single Event Upset (SEU) Linear Energy Transfer (LET) up to 20 MeV.cm²/mg, without system mitigation Designed for No Single-Event Functional Interrupts (SEFI), which secures all memories’ integrity Both devices are fully immune to Single-Event Latchup (SEL) up to 62 MeV.cm²/mg. Other key features include fault management and data integrity features such as error-correcting code (ECC) memory, integrity check monitor (ICM), and memory protection unit (MPU), as well as CAN FD and Ethernet AVB/TSN connectivity. An evaluation board (ATSAMV71-XULT) is available. Designers can use the Atmel Studio Integrated Development Environment (IDE) for developing, debugging, and software libraries. Both devices will also be supported in MPLAB Harmony version 3.0 by mid-2019. Sampling is available for the SAMRH71 in a CQFP256 ceramic package, while the SAMV71Q21RT is available in volume-production quantities in four derivatives: SAMV71Q21RT-DHB-E in ceramic prototype QFP144 package  SAMV71Q21RT-DHB-MQ in ceramic space-grade QFP144 package, QMLQ equivalent SAMV71Q21RT-DHB-SV in ceramic space-grade QFP144 package, QMLV equivalent SAMV71Q21RT-DHB-MQ in plastic QFP144 package, AQEC high reliability qualified Intersil’s new radiation-tolerant plastic ICs to power                                     Small satellite mega-constellations Intersil, a subsidiary of Renesas Electronics Corporation (TSE: 6723), announced the first three members of its new family of radiation-tolerant plastic-package ICs designed to support the emerging field of small satellites that will provide solutions such as high-speed Internet connections to hundreds of millions of users in communities, governments, and businesses worldwide. Fleets of hundreds of small satellites will create mega-constellation networks to deliver broadband Internet links from low Earth orbit (LEO) to every corner of the globe, including rural areas without wireless connectivity access. Intersil’s rad-tolerant plastic parts include the ISL71026M 3.3V controller area network (CAN) transceiver, ISL71444M 40V quad precision rail-to-rail input and output (RRIO) op amp, and the ISL71001M 6A point-of-load (POL) voltage regulator. These ICs deliver rad-tolerance performance at a much lower cost point versus radiation assurance tested Class V (space level) products. All three ISL71xxxM devices go through characterization testing, which includes total ionizing doze (TID) up to 30krads (Si) for single event effects (SEE). SEE take into account single event burnout (SEB), single event latch-up (SEL), single event transients (SETs) and single event functional interrupts (SEFIs) at a linear energy transfer (LET) of 43MeV•cm2/mg. Intersil’s rad-tolerant plastic packaging flow leverages the company’s more than 50 years of spaceflight experience developing rad hard (>75krad) and rad-tolerant (<75krad) products for extremely harsh environments. The upfront radiation effects characterization and AEC-Q100 automotive-like qualification gives customers the utmost confidence to design Intersil radiation-tolerant plastic parts into cost-sensitive small satellites for LEO mission profiles up to five-years. The ISL71xxxM are also well suited for high altitude (>40km) avionic systems, launch vehicles that are prone to heavy ions, and medical equipment where radiation is a concern. “The short mission life of small satellites and less stringent low earth orbit is driving the trend toward low-cost commercial off the shelf (COTS) ICs, but not without costly upscreening and spaceflight reliability issues,” said Philip Chesley, Intersil’s vice president of Industrial Analog and Power products. “Intersil’s cost effective, radiation-tolerant plastic ICs overcome the reliability issues and hidden costs of COTS, giving satellite manufacturers the confidence and mission success assurance to launch and operate mega-constellations.” The ISL71026M radiation-tolerant 3.3V CAN transceiver provides serial data transmission at speeds up to 1Mbps. Up to 120 transceivers can be connected to a single CAN bus to reduce cabling/harness size, weight and power (SWAP) costs for satellite command and telemetry systems. Key Features and Specifications of ISL71026M ·        Operates at input voltage range from 3V to 3.6V ·        Quiescent supply current: 7mA (max), Listen mode supply current: 2mA (max) ·        Compliant with ISO 11898-2 physical layer standard ·        Bus fault protection up to ±20V, and loopback/listen mode ·        Cold spare capability: powered down devices/nodes without affecting active devices operating in parallel ·        Characterized radiation-tolerant to 30krad(Si) and SEE at LET = 43MeV•cm2/mg The ISL71444M rad-tolerant quad RRIO op amp provides low power, low offset voltage, and excellent output noise performance. Its SET recovery of <5µs eliminates external filtering. Key Features and Specifications of ISL71444M ·        Wide single and dual supply range from 2.7V to 40V ·        Wide gain bandwidth (GBW) product of 19MHz ·        Very low input offset voltage of 300µV ·        Low current consumption per amplifier of 1.1mA typical, and high slew rate of 60V/µs ·        Characterized radiation-tolerant to 30krad(Si) and SEE at LET = 43MeV•cm2/mg The ISL71001M rad-tolerant 6A synchronous buck regulator with integrated MOSFETs delivers high peak efficiency up to 95%, and steps down 5V and 3.3V primary rails to POL inputs as low as 0.8V for FPGAs, CPLDs, DSPs, CPUs and peripheral I/Os. Key Features and Specifications of ISL71001M ·        Operates at input voltage range from 3V to 5.5V ·        Tightly regulated output voltage externally adjustable from 0.8V to 85% of Vin ·        Fixed 1MHz switching frequency for reduced filter size ·        +/-1.2% referenced voltage, and compensation free ·        Bidirectional SYNC pin synchronizes two devices 180° out of phase ·        Provides adjustable output voltage, analog soft-start, input/output undervoltage, overcurrent protection, and power-good output voltage monitor ·        Characterized radiation-tolerant to 30krad(Si) and SEE at LET = 43MeV•cm2/mg Intersil space-communications ICs immune to single-event effects   Intersil here today announced a family of radiation-hardened (rad-hard) power-management components designed to withstand the potentially destructive, heavy-ion environment of space. Single-event effects (SEE), as they are known, are becoming an important issue to communications-system designers as the size of power-control devices decreases and demand for bandwidth increases the complexity of spacecraft systems. Up till now, ionizing radiation effects have been mitigated by either part-level hardening or by shielding sensitive electronics, Intersil said. But the nature of SEEs makes shielding the new generation of components less effective. Intersil's new family of rad-hard power management devices takes advantage of the company's dielectrically isolated, hardened-silicon-gate wafer fabrication process. Specifically designed to deliver highly reliable performance in harsh radiation environments, the process has been used to produce ICs vital to integrated communications applications, such as pulse width modulators (PWMs), voltage references, voltage regulators, MOSFET drivers and comparators. "Intersil devices enable the design of satellite electronics systems with greatly enhanced reliability and operability," said Nick van Vonno, senior scientist for Intersil's space and defense product line. "Combining Intersil's power management design expertise with the company's robust rad-hard processes has resulted in the first power management device family hardened to guaranteed high levels of SEE," he added. "This is a strong value proposition, as it is impractical to shield against this environment." Intersil's SEE family includes the Star*Power line that features a series of power management ICs. Several of Intersil's Vulcan DC-DC power conversion modules, as well as the Star*Power Gold family of power MOSFET devices, is also included in the SEE family. The devices are hardened to total ionizing dose levels of 300 krad (Si) and are available in reliable hermetic packages. They are designed for enhanced SEE hardness, with a design objective linear energy transfer (LET) rating of 82 MeV/mg/cm2. SEE hardness is achieved by a combination of hardened processing and specific design techniques such as redundancy and error correction. The Star*Power and Star*Power Gold series both spans six voltage ranges from 30 to 250V. The Star*Power MOSFET devices are optimized for low on-resistance and superior total ionizing dose performance, while the corresponding Gold devices are optimized for low gate charge and superior SEE hardness. The Star*Power DC-DC converter modules offer highly efficient power conversion capability with total dose hardness of 100 krad (Si) and SEE hardness of 82 MeV/mg/cm2. The Intersil Vulcan line of hybrid DC-DC converter modules leverages the Star*Power rad-hard components. These highly efficient converters support a wide range of input and output voltages, reflecting spacecraft design trends towards higher DC bus voltages. The Vulcan modules are rated at 100 krad (Si) total ionizing dose and feature the same SEE hardening to LET values of 82 MeV/mg/cm2.   Chip duo targets power supplies for small satellites  Renesas Electronics claims to have launched the space industry’s first plastic-packaged, radiation-tolerant PWM controller and gallium-nitride (GaN) FET driver for DC/DC power supplies in small satellites (smallsats) and launch vehicles. The chip duo is especially designed for isolated flyback and half-bridge power stages and motor control driver circuits in satellite buses and payloads. The smallsats form large constellations operating in multiple low Earth orbit (LEO) planes and provide global broadband internet links and high-resolution imaging for sea, air, and land asset tracking.                       The ISL71043M PWM controller, which provides fast signal propagation and output switching, features maximum supply current of 5.5 mA, which reduces power loss by more than three times. Moreover, ISL71043M offers the adjustable operating frequency of up to 1 MHz, and that enables higher efficiency and the use of smaller passive filter components. The ISL71040M, a low-side GaN FET driver, ensures reliable operation by precisely controlling the gate driver voltage to +3%/−5% in hostile temperature and radiation environments. The chip’s split outputs adjust the turn-on and turn-off speeds, and its high current source and sink capability enable high-frequency operation. The ISL71040M chip operates with a supply voltage between 4.5 V and 13.2 V, and it includes both inverting and non-inverting inputs. Renesas said that both devices are characterization-tested at a total ionizing doze (TID) of up to 30 krads (Si) and for single-event effects (SEE) at a linear energy transfer (LET) of 43 MeV • cm2/mg. Both devices operate over an extended temperature range of −55°C to 125°C. The ISL71043M PWM controller is available in a small 4 × 5-mm SOIC plastic package, which reduces the PCB area up to 3× compared to competitive ceramic packages. And the ISL71040M radiation-tolerant low-side GaN FET driver is available in an eight-lead 4 × 4-mm TDFN package.        Electronics Rocket into a New Frontier                                           Featured Resources Vishay Super 12 Harsh Environments Technology Figure 1: First Launch of the Orion Crew Vehicle.    With the recent Orion spacecraft test flight, humanity is once again attempting manned spaceflight beyond low Earth orbit (LEO). The test launch marked the first time since the end of the Apollo mission in 1974 that a manned-capable spacecraft had flown so far from our planet. Space exploration technology has changed dramatically since that time, but the dangers that future explorers and their equipment will face has not. Radiation, extreme temperature fluctuations, and intense vibrations at liftoff are just some of factors that engineers must handle when designing electronics to operate in the harsh environment of outer space. Figure 2: Nanosatellite for NASA’s CubeSat Initiative.  While you might think that these are problems of thin tie-wearing engineers, nothing could be further from reality. Today you don’t need a NASA-sized budget to get into space, or at least into near-space. Many makers are engaged in the burgeoning field of amateur space exploration. Science experiments are now routinely tethered to weather balloons, and if you’re really lucky you can get a nanosatellite launched into orbit thanks to NASA’s CubeSat initiative. Regardless of your budget, the operating environment of space travel is tough on electronics. There are numerous design techniques and engineering principles to keep in mind when designing electronics that are meant to operate in space. Before we jump into the details, let’s first get a better understanding of the challenges posed by operating electronics in outer space. The Operating Environment                                     Figure 3: Source of radiation and high-energy particles in space.  Earth’s magnetic field provides a defensive shield that protects us from being inundated by highly energetic particles (protons, electrons, and heavy ions) and radiation. These particles can include cosmic rays that come from beyond our solar system, as well as particles that are ejected from our Sun during Solar Particle Events (SPE). As we move beyond the safety of our planet, these particles increasingly take a toll on sensitive electronics. High-energy particles can affect electronics in multiple ways, and someone has taken the time to categorize them with regard to semiconductors: Single Event Transient: High-energy particle affects a particularly sensitive component resulting in a transient current or voltage spike. Single Event Latchup: Particle strike causes an electrical short between components on an integrated circuit resulting in circuit malfunction, but recovery is possible through a reboot of the affected system. Single Event Burnout: A latch up event that results in the affected device being destroyed. Single Event Upset: Internal build up charge causes a ”bit flip” in a memory or logic device (more about this later.) Displacement Damage: Accumulation of defects to the structure of silicon due to high-energy particle impacts. Total Ionizing Dose: Buildup of positive charges in insulators and oxide over time result in faulty circuit behavior. Thus, various particle events can cause numerous problems that fundamentally alter the operating characteristics of components. Spurious (i.e., “false”) currents can be induced in circuits resulting in incorrect circuit operation. Even worse, microchips can be destroyed due to excess induced power. If enough charge accumulates, bits in a processor or in memory can be flipped, resulting in data corruption. If the corrupted data plays a role in controlling a critical subsystem such as navigation or engine control, it is possible to lose the entire spacecraft. Radiation is just one concern. Extreme variation in temperature can occur over very short time periods, from hundreds of degrees below freezing to hundreds of degrees in the other direction depending on a spacecraft’s orientation and distance from the Sun. If not handled properly, thermal stresses can cause unpredictable circuit behavior at best and catastrophic failure at worst. Space electronics must also handle problems that can occur before a spacecraft ever leaves Earth’s atmosphere. Violent vibrations induced during rocket-assisted launches wreak havoc on components and interconnects if they are not designed to tolerate such extreme forces. Build It Tough Both radiation and temperature extremes require a variety of unique design techniques when building electronics to reliably operate in outer space. At the silicon level, individual components are altered in fundamental ways to provide better resiliency. Other design techniques include redundancy, where additional and/or redundant components, circuits, or entire systems may be employed in the design. Lastly, there are operational considerations to protect onboard electronics. Let’s take a look at some of the design techniques in each category: Special Design Consideration at the Silicon (Component) Level: Component selection is a critical phase of designing a space-based system. There are many differences in the engineering and manufacturing techniques of components that to be considered: “Radiation hardening” is the term given to a variety of design and manufacturing techniques to re-design electronic components (most commonly semiconductor-based components) to be more resilient to exposure to high-energy particles. A common method is to replace the silicon substrate of semiconductors with “silicon-insulator-silicon” substrate (SOI) or a sapphire substrate (silicon-on-sapphire, or SOS). The alternative substrate allows semiconductor components to be very good at curtailing the spread of stray currents to neighboring elements, should one element be struck by a high-energy particle. Other semiconductor design tips you may not know, when designing for operation in space: Bipolar junction transistors are more tolerant of radiation strikes than CMOS circuits in some applications. Replacing dynamic random access memory (DRAM) with static RAM is a design trade-off that is often chosen since SRAM is more tolerant, though at the expense of cost and physical layout size (less memory per unit area). Robust and Redundant Systems: After selecting robust components that can meet the operating requirements, the next key step is to ensure the system as whole is well architected and that interfaces between components are as well designed as the components themselves. Material selection is one key aspect of ensuring good radiation protection for internal systems. Copper and aluminum shielding is an option to protect a spacecraft’s circuitry from certain particles, though this is not effective for higher energy cosmic rays. Lead is another option for shielding. Hamming distance functions and parity bits can be used for memory error detection and correction. The Hamming function is a software-based solution and does add some processing overhead. Modular redundancy techniques such as Triple Modular Redundancy (TMR) is a design topology where redundant copies of the same circuits are used to process the same data inputs. The outputs are then passed to a “majority gate” that compare the outputs from the redundant circuits and decide the correct solution to pass on to systems downstream. This has the advantage of being faster than the Hamming solution as it is done all in hardware. The Data Processing System (DPS) aboard the now defunct U.S. Space Shuttles had five redundant backup systems, one of which ran independently developed software from the rest as a failsafe measure. The use of a watchdog timer is another design technique to detect and recover from a computer glitch. A watchdog timer works by counting down and every so often the main processor resets the watchdog before it reaches zero. Should a main computer glitch occur and the watchdog timer hits zero, the watchdog will generate a reset signal that will restart the main processor and place it into a safe mode before resuming operations. Electromechanical systems are also employed on spacecraft that must contend with high temperatures of the inner solar system before venturing into the cold of the outer solar system. Temperature sensors, when combined with mechanical systems such as louvers, can safely regulate the internal temperature of a spacecraft. While we’ve talked a lot about semiconductor design strategies, it should be worth highlighting that interface between subsystems is another potential issue for spacecraft electronics. Interconnects and cable connectors between systems must also be robust to withstand spacecraft launch and possibly even re-entry.  Repair and maintenance for space stations is also a consideration. Thoughtful design is a part of space operation, possibly learned the hard way. Remember the round and square CO2 scrubbers in Apollo 13? The crew had moved to safety in the Lunar Module that was designed for two people for 36 hours of use, not three people for 96 hours.    Figure 4: Astronaut John Swigert is shown to the right of the square device they hacked together to adapt the square scrubber cartridges to fit that on the Lunar Module, which used round cartridges. And yes, that is duct tape.  We know that purposefully keeping designs consistent and simple can save lives and cost. Most engineers would label a beautifully simple yet very efficient design as “elegant.” Although intended for use on Spaceship Earth, Phoenix Contact’s SUNCLIX Photovoltaic Connectors require no tools to assemble, and would qualify as an “elegant design” for many. Robust, redundant systems are an engineering methodology, but elegant design flows from experience, innate talent, and creativity. Figure 5: Phoenix Contact’s SUNCLIX Photovoltaic Connectors demonstrate elegance in design. (Source: Mouser) Operating Procedures: Lastly, there are methods in operation of spacecraft and associated subsystems to reduce the impact space: Orbit selection is key, as certain orbits will reduce exposure to high-energy particles. Orbits such as those favored by CubeSats can be safe enough such that commercial-off-the-shelf (COTS) components can be used (without radiation hardening.) De-energizing all but the most critical systems before entering into regions of space where high radiation is expected is often employed to preserve onboard systems. Beyond the Final Frontier Outer space is not the only harsh environment where electronics may be installed. There are plenty of harsh operating environments right here on Earth. Consider the following environments: Polar regions: Extremely low temperatures Desert/Rain Forest: High temperature or very humid environments Deep Ocean: High pressure, low temperature Industrial: Chemically corrosive environments Medical: Inside the human body Each environment presents unique operating challenges. From a systems engineering perspective, understanding the operating environment is key in making solid design decisions and considering all potential environmental conditions early in the design process. And don’t assume a one-fits-all-solution will work in every situation. Design issues are complicated by the fact that once launched, the ability to perform maintenance on a spacecraft is very limited, depending on the mission. Thus engineers must employ a multitude of techniques to ensure that systems can handle the countless possible failure scenarios that can be encountered. Thus, radiation hardened components are more expensive than conventional-use, COTS counterparts, even though the hardened components can sometimes technologically trail behind by five or more years. Also consider that while all engineering ventures must strike a balance between cost, schedule, and technical performance, space-based systems must contend with unique scheduling challenges. Certain missions that target particular destinations may have launch windows that are only a few days. Missing a deadline may mean waiting years for another opportunity. In short, design for space missions is not for the timid. To find out more about spacecraft electronics component design and manufacturing (or if you have trouble sleeping), there are years’ worth of U.S. military standards (a.k.a. MIL STD and MIL-SPEC) online at everyspec.com,                    Radiation-hardened space electronics enter the multi-core era The pace of embedded computing technology development is placing pressure on satellite and spacecraft designers, who must deliver reliable systems at low costs.                                     The pace of embedded computing technology development is placing pressure on satellite and spacecraft designers, who must deliver reliable systems at low costs. Space is a dangerous place, especially when it comes to sensitive electronic components like microprocessors, solid-state memory, and network interfaces. The problem is radiation; space has a lot of it, and most modern electronic components were not designed to operate in a radiation environment. Levels of radiation that occur in space can cause a variety of problems for electronic components, ranging from complete burnout to the occasional bit flip that can corrupt some data and render the reliability of even untouched data open to question. There are ways to specially design radiation-hardened electronic parts to resist the effects of radiation, but it's expensive to do this. Moreover, overall demand for rad-hard electronic parts is relatively low, which can drive up their costs even more.            The growing use of space-based electronics for manned spacecraft, satellites, and deep-space probes is putting pressure on the rad-hard community to deliver technology with high performance and low cost. Then there's specially shielded packaging of electronic parts to keep radiation at bay. Not only is this approach expensive, but it also can be heavy enough to adversely influence launch costs. There are other ways of dealing with space radiation, ranging from redundant subsystems, selective shielding, and upscreening commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) electronics for enhanced reliability. Among the challenges of space operations today are balancing electronics costs, capabilities, and reliability such that systems are good enough to operate in specific radiation environments for expected durations to meet mission requirements. Space radiation effects There are several ways that electronic parts designers can radiation-harden their devices. One of the most common is to harden for total-ionizing-dose radiation - or the amount of radiation the device is expected to withstand for its entire life before problems occur. A typical requirement is for 100 kilorads of total-dose radiation hardness. The evolution of today's advanced electronic components, however, also is changing the total-dose picture. Specifically, the shrinking size of circuits on today's most modern chips is lessening their vulnerability to total-dose radiation. "As technology nodes decrease in size - from 90 nanometers to 14 nanometers - total ionizing dose performance naturally improves," says Michelle Mundie, business area director of standard products at rad-hard specialist Cobham Semiconductor Solutions in Colorado Springs, Colo. This phenomenon is a double-edge sword, however, because the steady shrinking of chip geometries also makes these devices even more vulnerable to other kinds of radiation effects, namely single-event upset (SEU) and single-event latchup (SEL). "Single-vent effects like latchup are becoming more of a problem, so we have to design for those effects. "Devices today are more sensitive to radiation at the gate and transistor level."            Curtiss-Wright is providing the company's radiation-tolerant Smart Backplane technology for the European Space Agency's Vega-C expendable space launch rocket. Single-event upset can corrupt data when a radiation-charged particle flips a data bit from a one to a zero, or vice versa, which corrupts data. SEU typically does not physically damage an electronic device, only the data it contains or that flows through it. Single-event latchup, however, can be damaging if it causes a short circuit that triggers thermal runaway. Device designers must consider these potential threats. There are several design approaches to mitigating radiation effects, which include radiation hardening by design, selective shielding, redundancy, and error-checking. One of today's most notable rad-hard by design projects is the High Performance Spaceflight Computing (HPSC) Processor Chiplet program. Rad-hard by design Rad-hard by design involves designing an electronic component from the ground up to resist radiation effects. It can be one of the most expensive and time-consuming approaches, but sometimes it's the only solution for electronic components that are crucial for protecting human lives or safeguarding important orbital and deep-space missions. U.S. government space experts are working with the Boeing Co. to create a new generation of radiation-hardened microprocessors for a wide variety of space applications to provide some of the most advanced processor technologies with broad industry and software support for future space missions. Sponsors of the HPSC project are the U.S. National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) and the U.S. Air Force Research Laboratory at Kirtland Air Force Base, N.M. Industry experts from the Boeing Solid-State Electronics Development segment in Seattle are carrying out the program, based on a $25.9 million contract awarded last March by the NASA Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt, Md.                  Curtiss-Wright is delivering the company's MnACQ-2000 Miniature Network Data Acquisition System, shown above, for the NASA Orion spacecraft and the Space Launch System (SLS). These data-acquisition systems are hardened against the effects of space radiation. The HPSC program is intended to develop rad-hard microprocessor technology that will replace or augment previous generations of rad-hard microprocessors, such as the RAD750 from the BAE Systems Electronic Systems segment in Manassas, Va., and the RH-1750A, RH-32, and Advanced Spaceborne Computer Module (ASCM) from the Honeywell Aerospace segment in Clearwater, Fla. Managing the HPSC project are experts at the NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) in Pasadena, Calif., led by Richard Doyle and Raphael Some. The NASA Goddard Space Flight Center is managing the HPSC contract. The program is developing technologies for a next-generation, general-purpose, multi-core space processor to meet on-board computing needs of future manned spacecraft and space robots. The four-year project is expected to deliver a next-generation, rad-hard space processor based on the ARM processor architecture to provide optimal power-to-performance for upgradeability, software availability, ease of use, and relatively low costs. Although previous generations of rad-hard space processors like the RAD750 have performed well for years, "there are needs now that are well in excess of what that processor can do. Today's radiation-hardened space processors typically are single-processor systems based on existing commercial or military computers. They operate at maximum required throughput, fault tolerance, and power levels. Air Force and NASA space experts, however, say they anticipate future missions that will require an increase in throughput and wider variations in throughput, fault tolerance, and power levels. Commercially developed technology "We're basing this device on commercially developed, well-supported IP, and making sure there is a wide user base and software support - something that is well-supported by industry . Air Force and NASA experts have defined the ARM-based hardware and companion Linaro system software as the HPSC processor baseline architecture. Boeing embedded computing experts will develop a new space processor design that will provide orders of magnitude improvement in performance and performance-to-power ratio as well as the ability dynamically to set the power-throughput-fault tolerance operating point. The HPSC project also will use Radiation Hard by Design (RHBD) standard cell libraries, as well as the ARM A53 processor with its internal NEON single instruction, multiple data (SIMD) design. "You really need the ability to do radiation hardening by design, applied to standard cells, etc., that allow you to use a modern semiconductor process. NASA experts are looking at three broad application areas for the next-generation HPSC microprocessor: vision systems, model-based reasoning for on-board autonomy, and high-rate instrument processing . Vision systems would involve space applications like obstacle avoidance. "We need to process imagery to determine where you should and should not land, and in real time . Model-based reasoning for on-board autonomy could enable spacecraft designers and space mission managers to migrate much of the mission-planning and resource-management tasking to the spacecraft, rather than rely on ground controllers for those jobs. NASA experts also are thinking ahead to future deep-space missions in which ground controllers may not always be in touch with the spacecraft, so must rely on the spacecraft to make some of its own decisions. High-rate instrument processing involves demanding digital signal processing for sensors and instruments like synthetic aperture radar and hyperspectral electro-optical sensors. "We want to migrate some on-board data processing on-board the spacecraft so we can downlink data of interest, rather than just the raw data. In addition, NASA experts are looking to Boeing to develop enabling technologies for a space processor that not only is radiation hardened, but also can manage its own electricity demands to preserve power resources - especially on deep-space missions far from Earth. Aitech offers the E905 three-slot, cold-plate-cooled, space-rated embedded computing enclosure for mission-critical space applications, built on a 3U CompactPCI platform using machined aluminum. Smart power usage A key goal is the ability to trade dynamically between processing throughput, power consumption, and fault tolerance. "We want to be power-aware in our processor, and be able to ramp-down the processor for just what we need. That is kind of missing today . "We are looking for the ability to tailor power, processing, and fault tolerance. Flexibility is one of the key objectives for HPSC." Fault tolerance management middleware will enable the processor to detect and log errors; remove services likely to experience hard failures; respond to uncorrectable errors; and implement n-modular redundancy, checkpoint/rollback, or other high-level fault tolerance. Additional applications for the HPSC processor will include military surveillance and weapons systems, human-rated spacecraft, habitats and vehicles, and robotic science and exploration platforms. System applications range from small satellites to large flagship-class missions. Additional space computing tasks of the HPSC processor will include command and data handling, guidance navigation and control, and communications like software-defined radio; human assist, data representation, and cloud computing; high-rate real-time sensor data processing; and autonomy and science processing. Boeing will provide prototype radiation-hardened, multi-core computing processor Chiplets, system software, and evaluation boards for Chiplet test and characterization. The Chiplets each contain eight general-purpose processing cores in a dual quad-core configuration, and interfaces to memory and peripheral devices. "The period of performance is 45 months, so by late 2020 we're expecting Boeing to provide a processor chip or chiplets, packaged chiplets and bare die, and evaluations boards populated with chiplets to exercise the silicon . "These chiplets will not be space-qualified; the focus of this project is on the silicon."                       Embedded computing companies that specialize in rugged COTS technology are adapting design techniques to provide rad-hard computing for space. Shown above is the Aitech SP0-S enhanced space-qualified 3U CompactPCI single-board computer. System software infrastructure will support real-time operating systems and Unix/Linux parallel processing to support hierarchical fault tolerance ranging from single Chiplet deep-space robotic missions to multi-Chiplet -redundant human spaceflight missions. "We also expect system software, including operating system, compilers, debuggers, a Linux operating system, and a real-time operating system,. The HPSC processor will include Serial RapidIO (SRIO) for high-bandwidth communications, and several interfaces to high-speed, off-chip memory. The SRIO interfaces also can function as advanced microcontroller bus architecture (AMBA)-bus bridges to tile or cascade several processors to increase bandwidth or improve fault tolerance. The SRIO interface also can extend the HPSC processor to other SRIO-enabled processing devices such as field-programmable gate arrays (FPGAs), graphics processing units (GPUs), and in the future to other application-specific integrated circuit (ASIC)-based coprocessors. NASA and the Air Force will consider a flight-qualification program when the HPSC program concludes in late 2020 or early 2021. After that, it's reasonable to assume the technology will be ready for deployment. it"s speculates that HPSC technology could be deployed for at least 10 years before designers must look at a new generation of rad-hard microprocessors. Looking beyond microprocessors Outside the realm of the HPSC program, NASA experts are considering plans for additional radiation-hardened computer components, such as general-purpose graphics processing units (GPGPUs), field-programmable gate arrays (FPGAs), as well as volatile and non-volatile memory. The problem right now is funding. For the HPSC program "we looked at a number of processing architectures, and the biggest bang for the buck was a general-purpose, multi-core processor. For the future, nevertheless, "we have interest in some sort of paring of a general-purpose multicore processor with a rad-hard FPGA or GPGPU. There is interest, but we can't say that we have funding for that, but there's definitely interest. "We're also interested in advancing volatile and non-volatile memory and networking rad-hard technologies . We have interest in developing a rad-hard ecosystem around that HPSC processor." COTS electronics for space While it's true that some space applications require the most expensive radiation-hardening solutions, the reality is that space systems designers must do the best they can to use commercially available electronic components for space applications. Often this approach involves taking a hard look at whether the intended application is life- or mission-critical, the expected severity of the radiation environment in which the overall system will operate, and the duration of the planned mission, and then designing a radiation-tolerant system that's good enough. Low-Earth orbit (LEO), for example, does not experience the same radiation levels that higher orbits or deep-space have. A growing number of LEO satellite applications today, moreover, have relatively limited life cycles. Some Earth-observation projects, in fact, are expected to last for less than five years. "There's a push to put a lot more hardware on LEO orbits lasting from three to five years for space observation," says George Romaniuk, director of space product management at Aitech Defense Systems Inc. in Chatsworth, Calif. "The orbit is low, so the requirements are not that stringent. On the other hand, we see groups that will be for lunar or asteroid exploration beyond Earth orbit. They want to stay for a very, very long time (18 years, minimum) so the market is starting to segment." Applications in lower-Earth orbits that may be of relatively short durations - and that could tolerate the occasional data upset - are a particularly promising market for COTS electronics suppliers, particularly for cost-sensitive applications like small satellites. "Our lives are basically lives of compromise," Romaniuk says. "We may not have $7 million to create something nice, but we have to piece together things that will provide performance and reliability." Cobham has specialized for decades in selecting commercially developed electronic parts that are appropriate for some space applications. The company uses upscreening and a variety of other testing. The company started their rad-hard upscreening business about 20 years ago with a focus on solid-state memory, and now is expanding into microcontrollers and mixed-signal analog products. "With changing market pressures from the small satellite industry, and the drive to smaller device sizes, a lot of the space market is looking at flying at COTS products," says Cobham's Mundie. "We knew the need was there, and our focus is changing to ensure we are offering our right products to the industry. It is a challenge for us to identify COTS products that will work in a variety of applications." Cobham is using upscreening technologies and years of knowledge to create a radiation-hardened CAN bus network interface. Multi-core redundancy Some technological developments in the COTS computing industry are providing serendipitous advantages for space systems designers. Not only are deeply submicron geometries naturally resistant to total-ionizing-dose radiation, but modern multicore processor architectures also offer opportunities for system redundancy. Embedded computing designers at the Curtiss-Wright Corp. Defense Solutions Division in Ashburn, Va., are using multi-core processors not to block radiation-induced single-event effects, but to recover gracefully without system disruption when upsets occur. "Where we are now using multi- core processors to speed up com- puting, we also can use that to our advantage by running the same code in multiple cores," says Paul Hart, chief technology officer and technical fellow of avionics and electronics at the Curtiss-Wright office in Christchurch, England. "We run main code in one core, and duplicate code in another core that run in lockstep," Hart explains. Running identical code in three separate processor cores enables the system to detect a malfunction in one core, shut down the offending core, and continue operating based on no detected malfunctions in the other two. "If a single event does occur, it will cause one of the cores to lose lock," Hart says. "If that happens the higher-level supervisory system that operates above it will reset the device. It will take in the order of seconds to reboot a typical embedded application; while the upset core is rebooting, the other two carry on. You're fully recoverable after a bit flip." Radiation creep Hardening electronic systems to the effects of radiation isn't just a space problem any longer. Aircraft flying at altitude, at about 30,000 feet and above, also are starting to experience radiation-induced effects. "There are 500 times more neutrons at 30,000 feet than there are on the ground," points out Aitech's Romaniuk. If commercial avionics systems designers aren't considering radiation hardening today, they soon will be. The shrinking of commercially developed microprocessor architectures and other electronic devices will continue making the problem worse. ERAFT                                            ANATOMY OF SPACE CRAFT        BepiColombo’s cruise configuration A spacecraft has a number of essential components, such as an engine, power subsystem, steering system and communications system, in addition to science instruments. Most of these systems are housed in a section called the service module, while the science instruments make up the payload module. These are encased inside the spacecraft’s main structural unit and connected by a ‘harness’, the electrical framework on which the spacecraft electronics systems communicate.                                                      Propulsion and thrust : The propulsion system that a satellite carries is dictated by the orbital position that it needs to reach and by the type of mission. Additionally to the launch vehicle-provided propulsion, there may be an upper stage (e.g. Fregat) that delivers the spacecraft to a higher or to an escape orbit. The spacecraft itself may carry its own (attached or jettisonable) propulsion module for orbital manoeuvres or orbit adjustment. Finally, smaller thrusters may be  included for fine orbit adjustments and orbit maintenance, the so-called stationkeeping. ‘Cold gas’ propulsion will be used by Gaia and Lisa Pathfinder and is the simplest type of chemical propulsion. The propulsion system consists of pressurized gas and a nozzle, and whenever thrust is needed the nozzle is opened and some of the gas is expelled. Most satellites also have simple hydrazine thrusters and/or reaction or momentum wheels to control attitude and orbit. Solar-electric propulsion using ion engines is an alternative way to travel in space. Ion engines shoot out a spray of ionized particles to deliver their thrust to push the spacecraft on its way. Ion engines typically get the high power required to ionize the propellant particles from the spacecraft’s solar panels. They work their magic in a leisurely way and can go on pushing gently for months or even years, for as long as the Sun shines and the small supply of propellant lasts. ESA’s SMART-1 spacecraft used ion propulsion to travel to the Moon in 2003; Bepi-Colombo, launching in 2015, will also use this method combined with gravity assists from flybys of the Earth, Venus and Mercury to finally enter orbit around Mercury. Studies are also being made in Field-electric propulsion systems (FEEPs), an advanced electrostatic propulsion concept that uses liquid metal and electric fields to create an acceleration                                                                   POWER : A spacecraft must generate and distribute adequate power to operate its subsystems and instruments. The power generation is usually catered for by solar panels, which convert sunlight into electricity. When the spacecraft is in eclipse, that is in the shadow of a celestial object or turned away from the Sun and the panels thus do not generate power, batteries kick-in. Depending on the type of spacecraft, solar panels may take on a traditional winged shape (for three-axis stabilized satellites) or be wrapped around the cylindrical body of a spinning spacecraft. Different spacecraft units may require different voltages. Some spacecraft have central units to convert and stabilise the ‘raw’ voltage produced by the solar array before it is distributed, while for others the conversion happens within the units. Planck spinning in space                                                           NAVIGATION SYSTEM A navigation system, usually referred to as ‘Attitude and Orbit Control’ is essential for the spacecraft to maintain its attitude, so that it can be directed towards its intended destination.  This capability is also required to keep its solar panels pointed towards the Sun and its instruments pointing at specific targets. Attitude control is achieved with electronic 'eyes' (sun and star sensors).  These can sense the location of the Sun and track the stars allowing the spacecraft’s position and orientation to be calculated. A propulsion system or reaction wheels controlled by appropriate software ensure then that the spacecraft is moved or oriented appropriately.  Most modern spacecraft are ‘three-axis stabilised’ so that they sit 'upright' in space, while other satellites may spin to achieve stability. For example, Planck revolves about a Sun-pointing axis once per minute to stabilise its attitude.                                     COMMUNICATION  AND DATA HANDLING The communications system returns science data, that is passed on to the scientists,  and 'housekeeping' data, called telemetry, which allows engineers back on Earth to monitor the condition of the spacecraft. The on-board communications system also receives all incoming commands. Communications may be carried out at different frequencies using a combination of dishes and high- or low-gain antennaes.                                                         SCIENCE PAYLOAD Instructions are received from the ground in the form of individual commands or sequences to be executed at pre-defined times. The commands are processed by the data handling system that either executes them immediately or stores them for later execution. The data handling system comprises processors, on-board memory, and analog to digital and digital to analog conversion systems. Herschel’s cryostat vacuum vessel Science instruments and experiments make up the payload, the number and type of which depends upon the objectives of the mission and the size of the individual payload components. The payload elements and the consortia providing them are selected by means of an open call before the mission is selected. The scientific payload is normally funded by member states via the scientific members of the consortia.                                                     Astrophysics missions   Missions that study the Universe – stars, galaxies, black holes and so on – study objects by collecting the radiation they emit, using telescopes, cameras and detectors.  They usually have a large mirror to collect light from distant astronomical objects. The larger the mirror, the more light it can collect, and the fainter the object it sees. The surface of the mirror has to be precisely shaped and perfectly smooth, since the slightest roughness distorts the final image. Once light from an object, like a star, falls onto the primary mirror, it is directed towards a smaller secondary mirror where the light is focused and directed to the instruments. Here, the light is detected and analysed, and the results recorded by the onboard computer to eventually be relayed back to Earth.   A ‘baffle’ or sunshield surrounds the telescope, limiting the amount of stray light from the Sun, Earth or Moon that can leak onto the detectors and spoil the results. A sunshield also helps radiate excess heat into space, maintaining a stable temperature. A sophisticated cooling system may also be required; for Herschel and Planck the detectors must be cooled to temperatures close to the coldest temperature reachable in the Universe – absolute zero, or –273.15°C. This is achieved using a cryostat, which typically contains liquid superfluid helium at temperatures lower than -271°C. The role of the cryostat is fundamental because it determines the lifetime of the observatory: the superfluid helium evaporates at a constant rate, gradually emptying the tank. Rosetta’s Philae lander on comet nucleus                                                             Solar System missions   Spacecraft in orbit around a planet host a wide range of instruments to record information about the planet’s atmosphere, surface, and even subsurface. The payload may include cameras to take images; spectrometers to determine the chemical composition of planet’s surface and atmosphere; radar to probe the subsurface, and instruments to study the way in which the planet interacts with the Sun’s magnetic field. The payload may also include a lander, such as Cassini’s Huygens lander that touched down on Saturn’s moon Titan in 2005, and Rosetta’s lander Philae, which will probe the surface of Comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko in 2014 by scooping up samples of the surface and analysing them in its on board science laboratory. Other missions may include a rover to explore a wider range of a planet’s surface; penetrators to probe the subsurface of a planet or moon to detect ‘earthquakes’; or they may have a sample return element, which must be capable of returning back to Earth with samples collected from the target.                                                    Fundamental physics missions   Missions like Lisa Pathfinder will validate in flight a completely new and previously untested method of observing the Universe. Lisa Pathfinder is tasked with testing technology that will lead to the detection of gravity waves, which are thought to be generated by massive objects like black holes. The mission consists of placing two test-masses in a nearly perfect gravitational free-fall, and of controlling and measuring their motion with unprecedented accuracy. This is achieved through state-of-the-art technology comprising inertial sensors, a laser metrology system, a drag-free control system and an ultra-precise micro-propulsion system.                                                        SLUSH – The Search for Life Using Submersible Heated drill                                                                              Spider Water Extraction System Water is essential to human spaceflight missions. It is an immensely valuable resource to sustain astronauts, and as a building block for rocket fuel or other valuable compounds. This is why In Situ Resource Utilization, or ISRU, is so attractive to both exploration and commercial ventures: using local resources means missions can start with lower supplies, or extend their missions far beyond what is possible with materials on-board. Autonomously harvesting water from asteroids, however, is a nontrivial process for space mining technology. Designed for a mission to water-rich asteroids (Carbonaceous Chondrites), Honeybee Robotics’ Spider Water Extraction System is a spacecraft that drills and acquires icy soil samples, extracts the water for later use, and disposes dry soil to prepare for another round of sample collection. The architecture enables each drill to generate significant down-force in the absence of gravity — the auger drills mounted on each leg provide anchoring force as they sample for water-rich material. The Spider Water Extraction System, developed as part of the World Is Not Enough (WINE) program, is designed to be resilient, with multiple systems integrated into spacecraft lander legs provide higher processing volume and system redundancy.  The architecture provides a combination of low mass and high strength to drill into tough icy and mineral composites that can be as hard as concrete, whether the material is hydrated or free water. It has demonstrated the ability to gather water from Carbonaceous Chondrite analog materials (hydrates) under thermal vacuum conditions. The Spider Water Extraction System has two modes of mobility on an asteroid, with the ability to walk across the surface and also hop using steam propulsion (with propulsion powered by water mined from the target asteroid). As such, it could be used as a pre-mining surveying technology or as a mining platform on its own.                                                                                            Sample Processing Systems Robotic’s geotechnical work focuses on the entire sample acquisition and analysis chain. Sample preparation is at the heart of this process: a well-prepared sample is essential for accurate geotechnical analysis. Automated sample processing and sample preparation systems must be rugged enough to withstand vibration and harsh environments, but also low-power and lightweight for mobile applications. Honeybee’s Mechanized Sample Handler (MeSH) is a prototype miniature centralized sample preparation station that could be mounted on a rover for a future mission to Mars. MeSH crushes small rock cores to powder, then sieves and distributes it in measured aliquots to one or more instrument inlet ports. This system provides a complete core-to-instrument processing solution. It features a fast, efficient, fully automated 8-axis mechatronic system. Honeybee’s Grinding/Polishing Station (GRITS) is an autonomous three-station operation that can autonomously grind and polish, measure thickness, and measure surface finish to produce very thin samples of rock for geotechnical analysis. The autonomous system produces thin sections, on the order of 30 microns, with a surface roughness of 0.3 microns or better. These samples can then be analyzed by reflected light, polarized light, or other techniques to understand the geological composition of the rock.      Spacecraft Design Electronic Sub-systems About the electronic design of satellites and spacecraft :  Introduction - Comparison of spacecraft electronic systems to an equivalent ground based unit. Power Systems - Solar cells, solar arrays; storage cells; regulation dissipative and non-dissipative, regulators linear and switched mode, noise reduction, filters, supply monitoring, decentralised regulation. Attitude sensing and control - Earth and Sun sensors, charge coupled devices, wedge and strip, crossed anode, magnetic sensors, search coil and fluxgate, magnetic torquers. Mechanisms & Housekeeping - Control monitoring; optical and magnetic, pyrotechnic actuators, bridge techniques. Harnesses - EMC magnetic and electric coupling, shielding efficiencies for near and far field, EMC outgassing ports, connector types, low and high voltage, printed circuit board types. Reliability - Design techniques, heat dissipation, latch-up, interface and single point failures, housekeeping requirements, components specification, failure rates, fabrication, radiation testing, effect of radiation, displacement and ionisation damage, transients effects, designing for radiation protection. Analogue design - Charge sensitive amplifiers, noise considerations, practical circuits, pulse shaping circuits, unipolar and bipolar pulses, base line depression, pulse pile-up, low frequency measurements. Example sessions - Electrical hardware circuits for past and present space missions will be described and demonstrated utilizing the project's development circuit boards.                                           Challenges in designing electronics for satellites           The earliest satellite designs were huge, heavy, and functionality was limited.  Nevertheless, satellite designs started evolving with the passage of time and a new era of satellite modeling began with the invention of microcontrollers (MCUs). Engineers were able to reduce complex circuitry to a few parts as MCUs integrated multiple components, reduced power consumption, and minimized overall housing size and weight as Printed Circuit Board (PCB) size shrank, too. The latest development to making space accessible is the CubeSat. What are CubeSats? According to CubeSat101, Basic Concepts and Processes for First-Time CubeSat Developers, “CubeSats began as a collaborative effort in 1999 between Jordi Puig-Suari, a professor at California Polytechnic State University (Cal Poly), and Bob Twiggs, a professor at Stanford University’s Space Systems Development Laboratory (SSDL).” The publication by the NASA CubeSat Launch Initiative goes on to state, “The original intent of the project was to provide affordable access to space for the university science community, and it has successfully done so.” Figure 1: CubeSats come in several sizes. The exactingly specific standards for CubeSats is one of the reasons why they are an affordable means to access space experimentation. (Image: CalPoly) CubeSats are defined in sizes based on a standard CubeSat unit (U). A “1U” CubeSat is 10 cm3 and weighs around 1 to 1-1/3 kilograms. Since the first CubeSat, larger sizes have evolved and are based on the original 1U size, varying in size as 1.5U, 2U, 3U, and 6U, with new CubeSat sizes always a possibility. Today, many of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration’s (NASA) CubeSats contain ARM, Atmel, Texas Instruments’ MSP430, and Microchip Technology PIC microcontrollers.There are many challenges to designing electronics for aerospace or space travel, however. Temperature, vibration, and radiation challenges  Designing for space is much more complicated than designing for standard electronics. Electronics for military, avionics, and aerospace are crafted to withstand the extreme temperatures, vibration, shock, and radiation effects commonly encountered at lift-off and outside the earth’s atmosphere. Temperatures vary along a wide range from -55°C to +125°C in space. For instance, the surface temperature of the Moon ranges from between approximately –200°C to +200°C. A satellite can be exposed to below-freezing temperatures and extremely hot temperatures within a short period of time, taxing all materials. Extreme temperature not only shortens the life of a component, but it also affects its everyday operational functionality. Casual electronic components cannot bear such temperatures or such a wide range of temperatures for long. Commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) components that are designed to withstand the required temperature range must be used. An electronic part or kit that is specifically designed to a level of performance and reliability may be subject to assurance processes within the industry’s supply chain. The processes are meant to establish a quality and reliability foundation for the electrical, electronic, and electromechanical components that end up in the industry’s critical applications. “These assurance processes, with inspections and tests possibly performed on a sample basis depending on criticality, are intended to identify defects and abnormalities that serve as warning signs of a potential for premature failure, reduced performance, and safety. One example of an industry that conducts assurance processes is the Automotive Electronics Council, or AEC. The AEC “was originally established by Chrysler, Ford, and GM for the purpose of establishing common part-qualification and quality-system standards,” per the AEC’s site at aecouncil.com. Components meant for space travel also have exacting standards. Temperature isn’t the only factor. Vibration at lift-off could mean the sudden application of 9.2 million pounds of thrust. The galactic cosmic rays in space pose another major challenge and are a “slowly varying, highly energetic background source of energetic particles that constantly bombard Earth,” per the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA).The rays carry high-energy ions which are capable of energizing satellites electronics, resulting in malfunctioning and damages. Galactic cosmic rays (GCR) consist of heavy elements with high energy ions and no electrons. GCRs are concentrated with protons; they lose their electrons in the course of traveling through the galaxy at the speed of light. (See Figure 2 for more information.) GRCs can pass through a satellite or an astronaut’s skin.[viii] Satellites orbiting at low altitude are more affected by radiation.In order to protect electronic components from radiation, the components must be radiation hardened.                                     Figure 2: This illustration depicts two main types of radiation and how the magnetic field around Earth affects the radiation in space near Earth. Galactic cosmic rays are a variable shower of charged particles coming from supernova explosions and other events extremely far from our solar system. The sun is another main source of energetic particles. The sun spews electrons, protons, and heavier ions in “solar particle events” fed by solar flares and ejections of matter from the sun’s corona. Tin whiskers   The vacuum of outer space is also a good environment for tin whiskers to form. Pure zinc, tin, and cadmium plating are not allowed on components that qualify for existence in space. Limited power and housing dimensions Satellites are designed to remain in space for months or years and must have access to power. Solar power is the most likely source of energy to be used in space. The typical CubeSat is equipped with solar cells, however generating power with only a few cells means that the power supply is limited. Under these circumstances, large or power-hungry circuits are not easy to justify. Power consumption and size requirements can be reduced by using Integrated Circuits (ICs). One IC can achieve what was once achieved with a PCB covered with components. The advent of ICs contributed greatly to mankind’s capability in space. Compatibility with available power lines It’s possible that different ICs will require different voltage levels in a satellite. Separate voltage busses might power ICs with different voltage demands. In some cases, it is not practical to use low voltage levels as the voltages could drop significantly enough at the end of a bus to adversely affect operation. In such cases, choosing components with similar voltage level requirements might be preferable. By paying attention to the operating voltage levels of various ICs and components, designs avoid the need to provide several different power supply levels and corresponding voltage regulators. Using components with similar voltage level requirements reduces cost and energy dissipation. Redundant systems A typical satellite mission lasts for years, and repairs are uneconomical. Occasionally a member at the International Space Station or other entity might attempt to fix an issue, however this is a dangerous feat. Therefore, it’s essential to endeavor for flawless designs that are going to function throughout a satellite’s mission life without any issues. For critical missions, redundant systems are often installed in case a part or system malfunctions or dies. Thus, if something fails to operate properly, the redundant system can be implemented either automatically or deployed via radio signal from earth. Interestingly, a side-effect of designing for operation in space is the flexibility of being able to continue a mission even after disconnecting primary systems. Telemetry for monitoring all units Although satellite designs are finalized after extensive design reviews, detailed analyses, and multiple test procedures, unfortunate circumstances may still occur. It is essential to keep track of the various voltage, current, and temperature levels of all the major components. For that, data must be transmitted from the satellite to monitoring stations on earth. Automated, remote monitoring is called telemetry. If satellite telemetry records any significant abnormalities, the associated unit may be disconnected immediately to avoid damage to other systems. Designing systems for space used to be a government-only effort. Today, companies like SpaceX are launching satellites from earth for commercial companies and nations alike. Figure 3: In April 2016, SpaceX’s Falcon 9 first stage landed on droneship aptly named “Of Course I Still Love You. View the landing on                    __________________________________________________________________________________                                                                    Gen . Mac Tech  Zone Space ship Structure __________________________________________________________________________________