basic structure of electrical machine, DC generator construction, magnetic circuit of a DC generator, equivalent circuit of DC Machine armature,types

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Direct Current (DC) shunt generators play a vital role in converting mechanical energy into electrical energy. They are widely used in various applications,

Jump down to: Energy, Work, and Power | Electricity and Magnetism | Circuits | Electric Motors and Generators | Alternating versus Direct Current Electricity | Going between AC and DC Electricity | Exercises | ...

GENERAL INTERIOR VIEW OF POWER PLANT SHOWING THREE GE DIRECT CURRENT GENERATORS WITH CONTROL PANEL AT LEFT. - Pratt Institute, Power Generating Plant, Willoughby Avenue between Classen & Hall Streets, Brooklyn, NY -contains three direct current generators built by General Electric,directly connected with three horizontal reciprocating steam engines manufactured by the Ames Iron Works of Oswego, New York. The first power plant at Pratt was built in 1887, the oldest surviving units date to 1900.

By Jim Van Sant Issue #131 • September/October, 2011 Ever wonder how you could live off the grid when the sun isn’t shining on your solar panels? Our homestead alternative energy system is based on 12 volts direct current. That is what your car battery supplies. Many smaller store-bought generators supply only 115 VAC alternating […]

Obrum has unveiled the PL-01 Concept, a new armoured fighting vehicle (AFV) concept, at the MSPO 2013 defence industry exhibition in Kielce, Poland. The PL-01 was developed by Obrum, part of Poland Defence Holdings (PDH), with co-operation from BAE Systems, and is classed as a Direct Support Vehicle (DSV, or WWB in Polish) by the…

Last week we already presented our [first selection of beautiful, clever and creative logo designs](https://www.smashingmagazine.com/2009/04/01/drawing-inspiration-from-creative-logos/). This post presents the second part of our selection, featuring even more beautiful and creative logos that will hopefully inspire you or at least give you the idea of what the current logo design trends look like.

Caterham Cars is a manufacturer of specialist lightweight Sports Cars based in Caterham, Surrey, UK and part of the UK motor industry. Their current model, the Caterham 7 (or Seven), is a direct evolution of the Series 3 Lotus Seven designed by Colin Chapman and originally launched in 1983. A track-only car, the SP/300.R, is to be released during 2010. On 27 April 2011, Team Lotus owner Tony Fernandes announced that his team had purchased Caterham.

About this item New Aftermarket Part (Not Rebuilt/Refurbished/Repurposed) Specs: Motor Generator, Voltage: 12, Amps: 20, Rotation: Reversible, OD: 4.461in / 113.3mm, Shaft OD: 0.669in / 17mm, Length: 9.067in / 230.3mm, Terminal 1 Size: M6-1.0, Terminal 2 Size: M6-1.0, Terminal 3 Size: M6-1.0, Terminal 4 Size: M6-1.0, Shaft: M16-1.5 Threaded Shaft, Current Type: DC, Notes: DF Terminal Is M5-0.8, Weight: 18.35 lbs / 8.34 kg Replaces OEM Part Numbers: Bosch: 0010350018, Hitachi: GSB107-01, GSB107-01E, GSB107-04A, GSB107-04C, Mando: M003393, Club Car: 1012316, 101833701, Columbia Parcar: 30083-69A, 30083-69B, 30083-69C, 30083-69D, 30083-69E Please verify this is the right part number before ordering › See more product details

Listen to this episode from Sky Aspects: Astrology Transits and Astrological Topics on Spotify. Sky Aspects: Astrological Influences Astrology for the week of October 4th to 10th, 2021. Apologies in advance for the audio, I've been experiencing mic issues, got to love Mercury Retrograde, lol. Welcome to Sky Aspects and Astrology Series about Astrological topics. Weekly Astrology  Episodes on Sunday evening PST, plus New and Full Moons every two weeks. Also, I occasionally post about  Astrological topics. ⭐ Enjoy my vids and podcast? Support by buying me a fresh cup of coffee at Ko-fi https://ko-fi.com/cleopatrainvegas ⭐ Other places to find me https://linktr.ee/cleopatrainvegas ⭐ This Week’s Vibes October 4th to 10th 0:00 Like and share 2:40 Oct 4th Mercury Trine Jupiter: Communication That’s Fun And Philosophical Part 2 2:56 Oct 5th Mercury Quincunx Neptune: Communication With Shady People Part 2 4:57 Oct 6th Mars Quincunx Uranus: Rebelling Because You’re Bored 7:01 Oct 6th Venus Semisquare Sun and Mars: Relationships That Are Complicated 9:22 Oct 6th Pluto RX Direct: Emerging Like A Phoenix 10:39 Oct 7thVenus in Sagittarius: Leaving Your Options Wide Open 13:32 Oct 10th Saturn Direct: Understanding What Lacks Integrity In Your Life 18:30 #astrologicalinfluences #dailyastrology #forecastdailyastrology #horoscope #Astrologer #astrological #Astrologyhoroscope #DailyHoroscope #Vegas #Lasvegas #Astrologypodcast #Astrology #Astrologytopics

Welcome！！！ Ready Stock in Malaysia 🏻Ships within 24 hours 🏻Shipping time 2-3 days 🏻100% authentic item / 100% 正品保证 (We are direct to Factory) 🏻 We are Local Seller, always Quality check before ship out and we care your shipment after shipped️ SPECIFICATIONS : Product Name : Air Cooler Fan Product Size : 21cm X 9cm X 26cm Weight : 685g (without water) Power : 10W Max Voltage : 5V Electric Current : 2A Max Blowing Distance : 2.5m Max Plug : Type-C USB Plug Max Water Filled : 600ml Volume Of Mist : 225ml / h Max Time of Mist : 2.5h - 12h note： It is because the voltage is not enough may lead to part of the spray port can not be used, first of all, you can change the adapter, the adapter is best 5v 2A or more, secondly, the socket is best not to have other appliances charging, you can t

After more than a decade since the original RH84 was designed, I feel that this 1st generation RH design could benefit from a revision updating it to my current design views and correcting some decisions made in a previous time with solutions that are, perhaps, more matured.     The schematics of this revision 2 does not stray too far from the original design, as all the most important design choices and component values are still there. What are the revised issues? 1. g2 power supply The original g2 resistor is now replaced with a zener diode, allowing for a more constant voltage on the second grid, and actually correcting a slight issue with Ug2 which has been observed with several builds. Depending on the DCR of the primary of the output transformer chosen for the build, the voltage of the 2nd grid tends to be higher than the anode voltage. While this is not a particular problem in practice, it is rather annoying and imprecise. By replacing the grid resistor with a zener diode (in the schematics 21V) a stable voltage drop from B+ to Ug2 is made possible, where the zener diode value is chosen to be higher than the expected voltage drop across the primary of the output transformer. Most builds were made with smallish output transformers (sometimes from old console amplifiers) with a DCR of 200 – 270 ohms. As the anode current is approximately 40mA, the voltage drop lies between 8 and 11V: thus it is safe to assume that with a 21V drop from B+, the resulting Ug2 will always place the 2nd grid on a lower potential than the anode. The lower the Ug2, the less will be the total current draw of the tube, and in particular less current will be drawn by the anode – if automatic or fixed bias is applied to the cathode or the 1st grid, respectively. This sets some limits as to the value of the zener diode, since too low Ug2 could cause the output tube to draw less current than intended (or needed for a given performance). The potential current draw issue is addressed by the next revision. 2. Automatic bias vs. fixed current draw The second important revision in the RH84 schematic is the replacement of the cathode resistor (automatic bias) with a CCS (actually, current sink) fixing the current draw of the tube. Fixing the current draw of the tube with a simple circuit (LM317 + current setting resistor) allows a constant current draw regardless of the tube inserted. Besides the fact that no tube matching is necessary (particularly in SE amplifiers), this relieves the user or DIY builder from all concerns, including tube aging – as the current draw will have to remain the same throughout the life of the output tube. Of course, there are limits to everything – thus tubes reaching the end of life should be replaced with new or less aged ones. The current setting resistor is chosen for a standard value (27 ohms) and needs to be checked for exact value, as well as reasonably matched between channels: 1% metal film 1/4W units should be just fine. The cap bypassing the current regulator needs to be at least twice the “bias” value (voltage drop from cathode to ground): for an EL84 22V is a good starting point among standard values. Needless to say, the LM317 needs to be isolated from ground and from the other channel’s LM317, while some basic heat-sink can be provided but is not strictly necessary, since the dissipation of each unit will be approximately 0.41W, a value most LMx17 in TO-220 package can handle without a heat-sink. Power Supply for the RH84 When I designed the RH84 I was more interested with the audio part of the amplifier, than with the power supply the DIY builders would choose. While some understood and applied this “free to choose your own” concept, some had problems calculating correct values or choosing adequate components. Some mistakes in the power supply schematics part (lapsus calami) did not help in the process… The first proposed power supply is a classic CLC type resembling the original proposal. The amplifier draws (both channels) slightly less than 100mA and the voltage foreseen at the B+ point (actually, C2 voltage) is approximately 315V. This time, all values are given – and are to be regarded as the necessary minimum – DIY-ers are free to build the amp with oversized power transformers, although oversized power supplies are not particularly necessary in SE amps since there is a very slight difference in current draw during operation.   The second power supply schematics refers to a higher quality choke input power supply which should yield the same B+ as the simpler one. Component values are given and should be regarded as the necessary minimum. While there is no important difference in current draw during the operation of the amplifier, I feel that choke input power supplies allow for better sound overall, and particularly in the bass section. This is probably due to the lower output impedance of the power supply, or to the intrinsic “play” of the impedances of the power supply components. Particular attention should be given to the choice of the input choke – it will be prone to vibrations, and thus needs to be a potted or enclosed unit, as stiff as possible. Care should be given as well to the positioning of this choke, since it will have an important magnetic field due to the difficult task. On the other hand, the second choke does not need any particular attention – it sees low voltage swings and its task is just smoothing the ripple on the rectified AC. It can be the same choke as used for the CLC power supply version – an open frame unit will do just fine if it can handle the current (100mA). Overall Improvements Compared to the original RH84, this second revision should improve both the sound and the general operation. While RH84 amplifiers did not pose particular operation problems due to the simplicity of the design and overall stability – the fact that the output tube current draw is fixed, as well as a fixed g2 voltage, contribute to a general improvement of stability in operation, as well as predictable performance throughout the lifetime of the output tubes (the lifetime of the driver tube being longer by default). When it comes to sound, both revisions lead to improvements, particularly in the reproduction of lower frequencies. While some might criticize the adoption of a solid-state current source, or a solid state zener diode, both devices are readily available and cheap – and used as in this amplifier can only help the performance while not introducing any superfluous noise or distortions to the sound. The current source (or sink) under the cathode is effectively bypassed since the capacitor provides an effective AC path. The proposed revisions have already been implemented in the RH Universal, a 2nd generation RH amp. Basically, those design points have transformed the RH88 (for KT88 and 6550) into a universal amplifier accepting a wide range of output tubes – most of which are still in current production. While the RH84 is not universal, the proposed revisions add universality to the schematics, allowing its direct application to other similar but not identical tubes, like 6V6, 6F6, SV83 (6P15P), and 6L6G (6P3S). Basically, the RH84 revision 2 can be built using any of the above tubes without any modification – except for a choice of g2 zener value necessary to provide the safe voltage. For use with SV83 a 100V zener is recommended, while for most of the other tubes mentioned a 51V zener would be a fine precaution. All existing RH84 amps can be easily modified to the revision B version – it is necessary to replace the g2 resistor with a zener diode, and to replace the cathode resistor with an LM317 with current setting resistor. The proposed power supplies are meant for all who intend building an RH84 from scratch (or any of its derivatives with 6V6, 6F6, SV83) – it is not necessary to replace existing power supplies with those, but a B+ of 315V (or less) is necessary for the safe application of the revisions.

Description (No Model.) 2 Sheets-Sheet 1. , N. TESLA. APPARATUS FOR PRODUGING ELECTRIC GURRENTS OF HIGH FREQUENCY AND POTENTIAL. No. 568,176 Patented Sept. 22, 1896; Wirmmes: jVil'dh Jl frwembr WWW @M w (No Model.) 2 Sheets-Sheet 21-. N. TESLA. APPARATUS FOR PRODUCING ELECTRIC OURRENTS OF HIGH FREQUENCY AND POTENTIAL. No 568,176. Patented ept. 22, 1896. 61W I (97 My) ,4 TTORNEIKS UNITED STATES- PATENT OFFICE. NIKOLA TESLA, OF NETV YORK, N. Y. APPARATUS FOR PRODUCING ELECTRIC CURRENTS OF HIGH FREQUENCY AND POTENTIAL. SPECIFICATION forming part of Letters Patent No. 568,176, dated September 22, 1896. Application filed April 22, 1896. To all whom it may concern.- Be it known that I, NIKOLA TESLA, a citizen of the United States, residing at New York, in the county and State of New York, have invented certain new and useful Improvements in Apparatus for the Production of Electric Currents of High Frequency and Potential, of which the following is a specification, reference being had to the drawings accompanying and forming a part of the same. The inventionwhich forms the subject of my present application is embodied in an improvement on an electrical apparatus invented by me and described in prior Letters Patent, notably in United States Patents No. 462,418, dated November 3, 1891, and No. 454,622, dated June 23, 1891. This apparatus was devised for the purpose of converting and supplying electrical energy in a form suited for the production of certain novel electrical phenomena which require currents of higher frequency and potential than can readily or even possibly be developed by generators of the ordinary types or by such mechanical appliances as were theretofore known. The apparatus, as a whole, involves means for utilizing the intermittent or oscillatin g discharge of the accumulated electrical energy of a condenser or a circuit possessing capacity in what may be designated the working circuit, or that which contains the translating devices or those which are oper- 'ated by such currents. The object of my present improvements is to provide a simple, compact, and effective apparatus for producing these effects, but adapted more particularly for direct application to and use with existing circuits carrying direct currents, such as the ordinary municipal incandescent-lighting circuits. The way in which I accomplish this, so as to meet the requirements of practical and economical operation under the conditions present, will be understood from a general description of the apparatus which I have devised. In any given circuit, which for present purposes may be considered as conveying direct currents or those of substantially the character of direct or continuous currents and which for general purposes of illustration may be assumed to be a branch or derived circuit across the mains from any ordinary source, I inter- Serial No. 588,53 (No model.) place a condenser or condensers to store theenergy of the discharge-current, and in a local circuit and in series with such condenser I place the primary of a transformer, the secondary of which then becomes the source of the currents of high frequency. It will be apparent from a consideration of the conditions involved that were the cendenser to be directly charged by the current from the source and then discharged into the Working circuit a very large capacity would ordinarily be required, but by the above arrangement the current of high electromotive force which is induced at each break of the main circuit furnishes the proper current for charging the condenser, which may therefore be small and inexpensive. Moreover, it will be observed that since the self-induction of the circuit through which the condenser discharges, as wellas the capacity of the condenser itself, may be given practically any desired value, the frequency of the discharge-current may be adjusted at will. The object sought in this invention may be realized by specifically different arrangements of apparatus,but in the drawings hereto annexed I have illustrated forms which are typical of the best and most practicable means for carrying out the invention of which I am at present aware. Figure 1 is a diagrammatic illustration of the apparatus, and Fig. 2 a modification of the same. Referring to Fig. 1, A designates any source of direct current. In any branch of the circuit from said source, such, for example, as would be formed by the conductors A A from the mains A and the conductors K K, are placed self-induction or choking coils B B and a circuit-controller C. This latter may be an ordinary metallic disk or cylinder with teeth or separated segments D D E E, of which one or more pairs, as E E, diametrically opposite, are integral or in electrical contact with the body of the cylinder, so that when the controller is inthe position in which the Ice two brushes F F bear upon two of said segments E E the circuit through the chokingcoils B will be closed. The segments 1) D are insulated, and while shown in the drawings as of substantially the same length of are as the segments E E this latter relation may be varied at will to regulate the periods of charging and discharging. The controller 0 is designed to be rotated by any proper device, such, for example, as an electromagnetic motor, as shown in Fig. 2, receiving current either from the main source or elsewhere. Around the controller 0, or in general in parallel therewith, is a condenser H, and in series with the latter the primary K of a transformer, the secondary L of which constitutes the source of the currents of high frequency which may be applied to many useful purposes, as for electric illumination, the operation of Orookes tubes, or the production of high vacua. IL indicates the circuit from the secondary, which may be regarded as the working circuit. A more convenient and simplified arrangement of the apparatus is shown in Fig. 2. In this case the small motor G, which drives the controller, has its field-coils in derivation to the main circuit, and the cont-roller O and condenser II are in parallel in the field-circuit between the two coils. In such case the field-coils M take the place of the chokingcoils 1-3. In this arrangement, and in fact generally, it is preferable to use two condensers or a condenser in two parts and to arrange the primary coil of the transformer between them. The interruptions of the field-circuit of the motor should be so rapid as to permit only a partial demagnetization of the cores. These'latter, however, should in this specific arrangement be laminated. The apparatus, as will now be seen, comprises, as essential elements, choking-coils, a circuit controller, means for rotating the same, a condenser, and a transformer. These elements may be mechanically associated in any convenient and compact form, but so far as their general arrangement and relations are concerned I prefer the relative disposition illustrated, mainly because, by reason of their symmetrical arrangement in the circuit, the liability of injury to the insulation of any of the devices is reduced to a minimum. 1 do not mean to imply by the terms employed in describing my improvements that 1 limit myself to the use of the precise devices commonly designated by such terms. For instance, the choking-coil as a distinctive device may be wholly dispensed with, pro vided the circuit in which it must otherwise he placed have a sufiiciently high self-induction produced in other ways. So, too, the necessity of a condenser, strictly speaking, is avoided when the circuit itself possesses sufficient capacity to accomplish the desired re sult. Having now described my invention and the manner in which the same is or may be carried into practical effect, what I claim is-- 1. The apparatus herein described for converting direct currents into currents of high frequency, comprising in combination a circuit of high self-induction, a circuit-controller adapted to make and break such circuit, a condenser into which the said circuit discharges when interrupted, and a transformer through the primary of which the condenser discharges as set forth. 2. The combination of a source of direct current and a circuit therefrom, choking-coils in said circuit, means for making and breaking the circuit through said coils, a condenser around the point of interruption in the said circuit and a transformer having its primary in circuit with the condenser as set forth. 3. .The combination with a circuit of high self-induction and means for making and breaking the same, of a condenser around the point of interruption in the said circuit, and a transformer the primary of which is in the condenser-circuit as described. i. The combination with a circuit of direct current and having a high self-induction, of a circuit-controller for making and breaking said circuit, a motor for driving the controller, a condenser in a circuit connected with the first around the point of interruption therein, and a transformer the primary of which is in circuit with the condenser as set forth. 5. The combination with a circuit of direct current, a controller for making and breaking the same, a motor having its iieldqnagnets in said circuit and driving the said controller, a condenser connected with the circuit around the point of interruption therein and a transformer the primary of which is in circuit with the condenser as set forth. NIKOILA 'JESLA. \V itnesses: EDWIN B. IIO'PKINSON, M. Lawson DYER.

I invite guests to share personal stories about acts of leadership that help shape their lives. In Episode 93, Ty Bennett explains something a mentor said that affected his outlook on his business and life. He then shares a fantastic story of leadership involving his son and a refrigerator. Next, Ty advises us on how we can lead more effectively. Prologue I’ve known Ty for about four years and have watched his Monday Morning Mantra video series frequently. Ty is one of the most popular keynote speakers I know, and he has authored a few books as well. Not only does he frequently speak to organizations, but he also speaks Portuguese and is the father of five children. 01:14 Part 1: Unintended Self-Infliction Ty shares a story from his days when he and his brother ran a direct sales business. He explains something that a mentor once said to him. What he heard affected his attitude towards his business and all aspects of his life. 06:19 Part 2: Motivators and Inhibitors The story that Ty shares is the first story that I heard from Ty. It shares a crucial perspective about leadership and distinguishes two approaches to handling a challenge with a young son. 12:04 Part 3: One Behavior Required to Lead Effectively Ty advises us on how we can lead more effectively. He explains one of the leadership principles related to learning. _________________________________ How You Can Support the Show Unlabeled Leadership is a free service for people to learn about leadership. If you want to support the show, you can make a $0.99 donation. Your support reduces production expenses. https://anchor.fm/unlabeled-leadership/support No transcript available (future enhancement) Episode links Ty’s LinkedIn Profile, website, Facebook, Twitter, YouTube, Instagram Ty’s books   The Power of Storytelling   Partnership Is the New Leadership   The Power of Influence   The Two Most Important Days of Your Life Gary DePaul’s website  Gary’s books:   What the Heck Is Leadership and Why Should I Care?   Nine Practices of 21st Century Leadership  Background Music You can find all the musical tracks at Envato Elements. 00:00 Theme music: Uplift Corporate Inspire by OlexandrIgnatov 00:59 Inspiring Emotional Cinematic Piano and Strings by pinkzebra 06:01 Chill Relax Summer Mood by Deodo 11:45 Uplifting Acoustic by pinkzebra 14:47 Fun and Flirtyby BrownHouseMedia Lead on!

Weiterführende Informationen: The Integrated Amplifier which polished up a circuitry, an organization, and three factors of a part carefully, and was completed by making it join together. NM-LAPT (Non Magnetic Liner Amplification Power Transistor) developed as a power transistor only for an audio is adopted as the power stage. NM-LAPT is what put into practice and carried out pure-copper material until it resulted in the bonding wire, and it had, carried out the workshop of the destructive resistance (PC) to cut-off frequency (fT), and has realized the outstanding RF property and big electric-current threshold value. Since the grounding circuitry of a power circuit and the grounding circuitry (negative of an output) of the amplifying circuit were connected, the reverse current from the speaker side flowed into the amplifying circuit, and in order to prevent that deterioration of a tone quality occurs, the Advanced alpha-X balance circuitry original with an SANSUI is introduced. The circuitry itself is intercepting an exogenous noise and inphase distortion by having the transmit and the balance stream composition to which an amplification is carried out simultaneously which the amplifying circuit became independent of completely from the grounding circuitry. Moreover, the impedance of a circuitry is lowered and the dynamic frequency characteristic is raised by inhibiting the influence on a passage signal as much as possible. Furthermore, by + and - side having 4 amplifier stream compositions which had exclusive amplifier, respectively, a forcible sound is gained by the low distortion for the push pull scheme which + and - side drives from bothways on the same requirements. The completeness of the diamond operation circuitry which can also take out - output without phase inversion is raised further. By making FET of the first rank into cascade connection, a wide range and high speed-ization were attained and the outstanding broader-based property is acquired. Moreover, the influence produced by the difference in an impedance with an external equipment is reduced sharply. The power transformer (IDEAL SILENT POWER TRANSFORMER) and the capacitor for power sources were developed newly, and it has succeeded in the large improvement in power-feeding capacity and its stability. In the transformer, the primary sub- adopts OFC lead wire as a drawer lead, and is also suppressing magnetic induction (リケージ flux) on the minimum level. This has called it the transformer weight of 13kg by enclosure of a high-density fill, study of the insulating material, etc. while making a shielding the quadruplicate of a copper short ring, a double silicon steel plate, and also a stops case. An electrolytic capacitor and first recovery diode were also changed completely, and have adopted the thing only for the highest tone quality. The unbalance of the power source etc. has stopped to the minimum various ill effects which it has on a music signal with the closed-loop stream composition which became independent of the NEW alpha-X balance power source in which all are clean at a custom-made low-impedance, and a grounding. The strengthening twin monophonic construction which placed the power-source part in the center and has arranged the power unit symmetrically was introduced, each part article which raised the intensity prevented deterioration of the tone quality by oscillation, and the outstanding image orientation and phase response are gained. The large-sized insulator and pure-copper bases, a copper plating part, etc. of a pure-copper Naked which stuck not only a control of the oscillation by a twin monophonic construction but the felt place have a large internal loss to each part, and are using the high thing of the vibrational absorption effect for it in plenty. moreover, the pure-copper material isolation which was being used from the former between the transformer, between chassis and an electrolytic capacitor, between chassis and an amplifier stand, and the sole plate etc. -- between a master volume, between chassis and a radiator, and power substrates -- andIt is newly adopted as a transformer, an electrolytic capacitor, a power substrate, and the power-source substrate itself. Also in the installment structure of each part, attaching the case of a transformer to a chassis for example, rather than attaching the main unit of a transformer to a chassis directly etc. has succeeded in intercepting the propagation root of an oscillation effectively by isorated mechanical feedback. For the improvement in a tone quality, the quality of each part is also pursued thoroughly. Not only a development of a transformer and a capacitor but adoption of the rolling copper substrate to a power platform or a power-source substrate, the copper plating to a rear panel, a coating of the bonnet by the coating with which a part for copper was mixed, adoption of the screw made from bronze, etc. are performed. Thorough investigation of non-magnetic-material-izing, the measure against vibration proof, low-impedance-izing, and the high-speed-izing is carried out for each part. By carrying out the direct input of the audio signal to a power amplifier part, the input termination which realizes a high purity transmit and amplification of the digital source is equipped. Since there is also a balance input in addition to a normal input, a setting according to a balance transmit and an amplification by the interconnection with the external equipment equipped with the balance output is possible. The source power direct switchpoint which transmits all the line-input signals to power amplifier as they are by one-touch is carried. Without letting any accessories functionalities pass, it connects and amplifies direct and a pure sound of the source is reproduced. At the time of an interconnection of the compact disk player to a power amplifier direct, the recording functionality in which an effective sound recording and listening can be performed is equipped. For example, it is possible to back-record compact disk linked to Normal 2 and other sources etc., hearing the source inputted into Normal 1. An all gilding input terminal, a large-sized speaker terminal, a pure-copper Naked large-sized insulator, real sub- wood, a polar attached-indicator power cord / AC outlet, etc. are carried. Form Integrated amplifier Output power (20Hz - 20kHz) Both channel simultaneous operation, THD0.003% 6ohm: 190W+190W 8ohm: 160W+160W THD 0.003% or less (at the time of an Output power 20Hz - 20kHz, an 8-ohm load intensity) Frequency characteristic DC-300kHz and +0 -3 dB (at the time of 1W output) Cross modulation distortion 0.003% or less (at the time of an 8-ohm load intensity) Dumping factor 150 (8ohms) Input sensitivity/impedance 1V / 5kohm (1kHz) SN ratio 120dB or more (A network) Dynamic power 6ohm: 310W 4ohm: 390W 2ohm: 580W TIM distortion (SAWTOOTH) Below a limit-of-measurement value Slew rate 200v/microsec Rise time 0.5microsec

 Input sensitivity/impedance (1kHz) Phono man month: 2.5mV / 47kohm Phono MC: 300 microvolts/100 ohm compact disk, Tuner, Line, Tape/DAT1-2-3:150mV /, 20kohm Phono maximum permissible input MM(THD 0.01%):250mV MC(THD 0.1%):25mV the frequency characteristic (1W) Phono man month: 20Hz - 20kHz, ±0.2dB compact disk, Tuner, Line, Tape/DAT-1, 2 and 3:DC-300Hz, and +0 -3 dB SN ratio (A network) Phono man month: 90dB or more Phono MC: 75dB or more compact disk, Tuner, Line, Tape/DAT-1, 2-3:110dB or more Tone control The BASS maximum variation: ±5dB (50Hz) The TREBLE maximum variation: ±5dB (15kHz) Subsonic Filter 16Hz (-3dB), 6dB / oct Loudness 50Hz:+4dB 10kHz:+3dB
                

Please Read Entire Description Before Purchase Bouquet with sola wood flowers in dusty blue and ivory, with baby's breath and faux greenery. Flower styles can and will vary based on current inventory levels and to keep orders unique, so they are not exact duplicates. Please include your choice of stem wrap and color (color of ribbon, white or ivory lace, or twine) in the notes section. Size pictured is a large (approximately 9" in diameter). Please contact me for rush orders or any questions you may have! Please know, colors can and will vary between devices. So, what ARE sola wood flowers? Sola flowers are made from the thin wood shavings of tapioca plants; both the inner white part and also with the darker skin/bark. They are also referred to as shola flowers, balsa flowers, tapioca flowers, or just plain wood flowers. Because they are made from plants, by hand, no two are EVER alike, and small "imperfections", such as tears, holes, and/or brown skin spots are possible on every single flower. The flowers are delicate and will have broken petals, just as real flowers would. However, no flowers will look like they were mangled by the neighbor's dog. To care for your bouquet, keep out of direct sunlight (the pretty colors could fade) and high humidity and/or moisture (these guys are made from a plant; they can mold).

Please Read Entire Description Before Purchase Bouquet with sola wood flowers in navy, burgundy, and ivory, with baby's breath and faux greenery. Flower styles can and will vary based on current inventory levels and to keep orders unique, so they are not exact duplicates. Please include your choice of stem wrap and color (color of ribbon, white or ivory lace, or twine) in the notes section. Size pictured is an extra extra large (approximately 12" in diameter). Bride is holding an extra large, bridesmaids are holding smalls. Please contact me for rush orders or any questions you may have! Please know, colors can and will vary between devices. So, what ARE sola wood flowers? Sola flowers are made from the thin wood shavings of tapioca plants; both the inner white part and also with the darker skin/bark. They are also referred to as shola flowers, balsa flowers, tapioca flowers, or just plain wood flowers. Because they are made from plants, by hand, no two are EVER alike, and small "imperfections", such as tears, holes, and/or brown skin spots are possible on every single flower. The flowers are delicate and will have broken petals, just as real flowers would. However, no flowers will look like they were mangled by the neighbor's dog. To care for your bouquet, keep out of direct sunlight (the pretty colors could fade) and high humidity and/or moisture (these guys are made from a plant; they can mold).

30 L.E.D പ്രോജക്ടുകള്‍ LED കള്‍ ഉപയോഗിച്ചുള്ള കുറച്ചു സര്‍ക്യൂട്ടുകള്‍ ... തുടക്കക്കാര്‍ക്ക് വളരെയധികം പ്രയോജനപ്രദമായിരിക്കും..വളരെ ലളിതമായ ഇംഗ്ലീഷില്‍ വിവരിച്ചിരിക്കുന്നു The LED (Light Emitting Diode) is the modern-day equivalent to the light-globe. It has changed from a dimly-glowing indicator to one that is too-bright to look at. However it is entirely different to a "globe." A globe is an electrical device consisting of a glowing wire while a LED is an electronic device. A LED is more efficient, produces less heat and must be "driven" correctly to prevent it being damaged. This eBook shows you how to connect a LED to a circuit plus a number of projects using LEDs. It's simple to use a LED - once you know how. CONNECTING A LED A LED must be connected around the correct way in a circuit and it must have a resistor to limit the current. The LED in the first diagram does not illuminate because a red LED requires 1.7v and the cell only supplies 1.5v. The LED in the second diagram is damaged because it requires 1.7v and the two cells supply 3v. A resistor is needed to limit the current to about 25mA and also the voltage to 1.7v, as shown in the third diagram.  The fourth diagram is the circuit for layout #3 showing the symbol for the LED, resistor and battery and how the three are connected. The LED in the fifth diagram does not work because it is around the wrong way.  CHARACTERISTIC VOLTAGE DROP When a LED is connected around the correct way in a circuit it develops a voltage across it called the CHARACTERISTIC VOLTAGE DROP. A LED must be supplied with a voltage that is higher than its "CHARACTERISTIC VOLTAGE" via a resistor - called a VOLTAGE DROPPING RESISTOR  or CURRENT LIMITING RESISTOR - so the LED will operate correctly and provide at least 10,000 to 50,000 hours of illumination. A LED works like this:  A LED and resistor are placed in series and connected to a voltage. As the voltage rises from 0v, nothing happens until the voltage reaches about 1.7v. At this voltage a red LED just starts to glow. As the voltage increases, the voltage across the LED remains at 1.7v but the current through the LED increases and it gets brighter. We now turn our attention to the current though the LED.  As the current increases to 5mA, 10mA, 15mA, 20mA the brightness will increase and at 25mA, it will be a maximum. Increasing the supply voltage will simply change the colour of the LED slightly but the crystal inside the LED will start to overheat and this will reduce the life considerably. This is just a simple example as each LED has a different CHARACTERISTIC VOLTAGE DROP and a different maximum current. In the diagram below we see a LED on a 3v supply, 9v supply and 12v supply. The current-limiting resistors are different and the first circuit takes 6mA, the second takes 15mA and the third takes 31mA. But the voltage across the red LED is the same in all cases. This is because the LED creates the CHARACTERISTIC VOLTAGE DROP and this does not change. It does not matter if the resistor is connected above or below the LED. The circuits are the SAME in operation: HEAD VOLTAGE Now we turn our attention to the resistor. As the supply-voltage increases, the voltage across the LED will be constant at 1.7v (for a red LED) and the excess voltage will be dropped across the resistor. The supply can be any voltage from 2v to 12v or more. In this case, the resistor will drop 0.3v to 10.3v. This is called HEAD VOLTAGE - or HEAD-ROOM or OVERHEAD-VOLTAGE. And the resistor is called the CURRENT-LIMIT resistor. The following diagram shows HEAD VOLTAGE: The voltage dropped across this resistor, combined with the current, constitutes wasted energy and should be kept to a minimum, but a small HEAD VOLTAGE is not advisable (such as 0.5v). The head voltage should be a minimum of 1.5v - and this only applies if the supply is fixed. The head voltage depends on the supply voltage. If the supply is fixed and guaranteed not to increase or fall, the head voltage can be small (1.5v minimum). But most supplies are derived from batteries and the voltage will drop as the cells are used. Here is an example of a problem: Supply voltage:  12v 7  red LEDs in series = 11.9v Dropper resistor = 0.1v As soon as the supply drops to 11.8v, no LEDs will be illuminated. Example 2: Supply voltage 12v 5 green LEDs in series @ 2.1v = 10.5v Dropper resistor = 1.5v The battery voltage can drop to 10.5v But let's look at the situation more closely. Suppose the current @ 12v = 25mA. As the voltage drops, the current will drop. At 11.5v, the current will be 17mA At 11v, the current will be 9mA At 10.5v, the current will be zero You can see the workable supply drop is only about 1v. Many batteries drop 1v and still have over 80% of their energy remaining. That's why you need to design your circuit to have a large HEAD VOLTAGE. A large Head Voltage is also needed when a plug-pack (wall wart) is used. These devices consist of a transformer, set of diodes and an electrolytic. The voltage marked on the unit is the voltage it will deliver when fully loaded. It may be 200mA, 300mA or 500mA. When this current is delivered, the voltage will be 9v or 12v. But if the current is less than the rated current, the output voltage will be higher. It may be 1v, 2v or even 5v higher. This is one of the characteristics of a cheap transformer. A cheap transformer has very poor regulation, so to deliver 12v @ 500mA, the transformer produces a higher voltage on no-load and the voltage drops as the current increases.  You need to allow for this extra voltage when using a plug-pack so the LEDs do not take more than 20mA to 25mA.   TESTING A LED  If the cathode lead of a LED cannot be identified, place 3 cells in series with a 220R resistor and illuminate the LED.  4.5v allows all types of LEDs to be tested as white LEDs require up to 3.6v.  Do not use a multimeter as some only have one or two cells and this will not illuminate all types of LEDs. In addition, the negative lead of a multimeter is connected to the positive of the cells (inside the meter) for resistance measurements - so you will get an incorrect determination of the cathode lead. CIRCUIT TO TEST ALL TYPES OF LEDs IDENTIFYING A LED  A LED does not have a "Positive" or "Negative" lead. It has a lead identified as the "Cathode" or Kathode" or "k". This is identified by a flat on the side of the LED and/or by the shortest lead. This lead goes to the 0v rail of the circuit or near the 0v rail (if the LED is connected to other components). Many LEDs have a "flat" on one side and this identifies the cathode. Some surface-mount LEDs have a dot or shape to identify the cathode lead and some have a cut-out on one end. Here are some of the identification marks:   LEDs ARE CURRENT DRIVEN DEVICES A LED is described as a CURRENT DRIVEN DEVICE.  This means the illumination is determined by the amount of current flowing through it. This is the way to see what we mean: Place a LED and 100R resistor in series and connect it to a variable power supply. As the voltage is increased from 0v, to 1v, the LED will not produce any illumination, As the voltage from the power-supply increases past 1v, the LED will start to produce illumination at about 1.6v to 1.7v (for a red LED). As the voltage is increased further, the illumination increases but the voltage across the LED does not increase. (It may increase 0.1v) but the brightness will increase enormously. That's why we say the LED is a CURRENT DRIVEN DEVICE. The brightness of a LED can be altered by increasing or decreasing the current. The effect will not be linear and it is best to experiment to determine the best current-flow for the amount of illumination you want. High-bright LEDs and super-bright LEDs will illuminate at 1mA or less, so the quality of a LED has a lot to do with the brightness. The life of many LEDs is determined at 17mA. This seems to be the best value for many types of LEDs. 1mA to 5mA LEDs Some LEDs will produce illumination at 1mA. These are "high Quality" or "High Brightness" LEDs and the only way to check this feature is to test them @1mA as shown below.  THE 5v LED  Some suppliers and some websites talk about a 5v white or blue LED. Some LEDs have a small internal resistor and can be placed on a 5v supply. This is very rare. Some websites suggest placing a white LED on a 5v supply. These LEDs have a characteristic voltage-drop of 3.6v and should not be placed directly on a voltage above this value. The only LED with an internal resistor is a FLASHING LED. These LEDs can be placed on a supply from 3.5v to 12v and flash at approx 2Hz. The LED is very weak on 3.5v but it flashing can be used to drive a powerful LED (see circuits section). It can also be used to produce a beep for a beeper FM transmitter. NEVER assume a LED has an internal resistor. Always add a series resistor. Some high intensity LEDs are designed for 12v operation. These LEDs have a complete internal circuit to deliver the correct current to the LED. This type of device and circuitry is not covered in this eBook. LEDs IN SERIES LEDs can be placed in series providing some features are taken into account. The main item to include is a current-limiting resistor. A LED and resistor is called a string. A string can have 1, 2, 3 or more LEDs. Three things must be observed: 1. MAXIMUM CURRENT through each string = 25mA. 2. The CHARACTERISTIC VOLTAGE-DROP must be known so the correct number of LEDs are used in any string. 3. A DROPPER RESISTOR must be included for each string. The following diagrams show examples of 1-string, 2-strings and 3-strings: LEDs IN PARALLEL LEDs CANNOT be placed in parallel - until you read this: LEDs "generate" or "possess" or "create" a voltage across them called the CHARACTERISTIC VOLTAGE-DROP  (when they are correctly placed in a circuit). This voltage is generated by the type of crystal and is different for each colour as well as the "quality" of the LED (such as high-bright, ultra high-bright etc). This characteristic cannot be altered BUT it does change a very small amount from one LED to another in the same batch. And it does increase slightly as the current increases. For instance, it will be different by as much as 0.2v for red LEDs and 0.4v for white LEDs from the same batch and will increase by as much as 0.5v when the current is increased from a minimum to maximum. You can test 100 white LEDs @15mA and measure the CHARACTERISTIC VOLTAGE-DROP to see this range. If you get 2 LEDs with identical CHARACTERISTIC VOLTAGE-DROP, and place them in parallel, they will each take the same current. This means 30mA through the current-limiting resistor will be divided into 15mA for each LED. However if one LED has a higher CHARACTERISTIC VOLTAGE-DROP, it will take less current and the other LED will take considerably more. Thus you have no way to determine the "current-sharing"  in a string of parallel LEDs.  If you put 3 or more LEDs in parallel, one LED will start to take more current and will over-heat and you will get very-rapid LED failure.  As one LED fails, the others will take more current and the rest of the LEDs will start to self-destruct. The reason why they take more current is this: the current-limit resistor will have been designed so that say 60mA will flow when 3 LEDs are in parallel. When one LED fails, the remaining LEDs will take 30mA each. Thus LEDs in PARALLEL should be avoided. Diagram A below shows two green LEDs in parallel. This will work provided the Characteristic Voltage Drop across each LED is the same. In diagram B the Characteristic Voltage Drop is slightly different for the second LED and the first green LED will glow brighter. In diagram C the three LEDs have different Characteristic Voltage Drops and the red LED will glow very bright while the other two LEDs will not illuminate. All the current will pass through the red LED and it will be damaged. The reason why the red LED will glow very bright is this: It has the lowest Characteristic Voltage Drop and it will create a 1.7v for the three LEDs. The green and orange LEDs will not illuminate at this voltage and thus all the current from the dropper resistor will flow in the red LED and it will be destroyed.   THE RESISTOR The value of the current limiting resistor can be worked out by Ohms Law. Here are the 3 steps: 1. Add up the voltages of all the LEDs in a string.   e.g:  2.1v + 2.3v + 2.3v + 1.7v = 8.4v 2. Subtract the LED voltages from the supply voltage.  e.g:  12v - 8.4v = 3.6v 3. Divide the 3.6v (or your voltage) by the current through the string.  for 25mA:   3.6/.025 =144 ohms for 20mA:   3.6/.02  = 180 ohms for 15mA:   3.6/.015 = 250 ohms for 10mA:   3.6/.01   = 360 ohms This is the value of the current-limiting resistor. Here is a set of strings for a supply voltage of 3v to 12v and a single LED:   Here is a set of strings for a supply voltage of 5v to 12v and a white LED: Here is a set of strings for a supply voltage of 5v to 12v and two LEDs: LED series/parallel array wizard The LED series/parallel array wizard below, is a calculator that will help you design large arrays of single-colour LEDs. This calculator has been designed by Rob Arnold and you will be taken to his site:  http://led.linear1.org/led.wiz when you click: Design my array The wizard determines the current limiting resistor value for each string of the array and the power consumed. All you need to know are the specs of your LED and how many you'd like to use. The calculator only allows one LED colour to be used. For mixed colours, you will have to use the 3 steps explained above. The result is not always correct. Read the discussion below: "THE DANGERS OF USING A "LED WIZARD" to understand the word "HEAD VOLTAGE."  The HEAD VOLTAGE should be as high as possible to allow for the differences in Characteristic Voltage and the variations in power supply voltage.  Source voltage diode forward voltage diode forward current (mA) number of LEDs in your array View output as: ASCII schematic wiring diagram help with resistor colour codes Resistor Calculator Use this JavaScript resistor calculator to work out the value of the current-limiting resistor: Source voltage = LED forward voltage drop = LED current in milliamps = Current-limiting resistance in Ohms = Closest 5% Resistor = Resistor wattage = Actual current = Power dissipated by LED      (watts) = Power dissipated by resistor (watts) = LED VOLTAGE AND CURRENT LED characteristics are very broad and you have absolutely no idea of any value until you test the LED. However here are some of the generally accepted characteristics:   THE DANGERS OF USING A "LED WIZARD" You can find a LED WIZARD on the web that gives you a circuit to combine LEDs in series and/or parallel for all types of arrays. Here is an example, provided by a reader. Can you see the major fault? The characteristic voltage (the colour of the LED) is not important in this discussion. Obviously white LEDs will not work as they require 3.4v to 3.6v to operate. The main fault is the dropper resistor. Read our article on LEDs. The most important component is the DROPPER RESISTOR. It must allow for the difference between the maximum and minimum supply voltage and ALSO the maximum and minimum CHARACTERISTIC VOLTAGE of the string of LEDs. When we say a red LED has a CHARACTERISTIC VOLTAGE of 1.7v, we need to measure the exact maximum and minimum value for the LEDs we are installing. Some high-bright and super-high-bright LEDs have a Characteristic Voltage of 1.6v to 1.8v and this will make a big difference when you have 8 LEDs in series. Secondly, the 12v supply may rise to 13.6v when the battery is being charged and fall to 10.8v at the end of its life. Thirdly, you need to know the current required by the LEDs. The normal value is 17mA for long life. This can rise to 20mA but must not go higher than 25mA You should also look at the minimum current. Many high-bright LEDs will perform perfectly on 5-10mA and become TOO BRIGHT on 20mA. As you can see, it is much more complex than a WIZARD can handle. That's why it produced the absurd result above. The maximum characteristic voltage for 8 red LEDs is 8x1.8v = 14.4v This means you can only put 6 LEDs in series. = 10.8v   The LEDs will totally die when the battery reaches 10.8v The value of the dropper resistor for 6 LEDs and a supply of 12v @20mA = 60 ohms. When the battery voltage rises to 13.6v during charging, the current will be: 46mA. This is too high. The CURRENT LIMITING resistor is too low.  We need to have a higher-value CURRENT LIMITING resistor and fewer LEDs. Use 5 LEDs: The characteristic voltage for 5 LEDs will be:  5 x 1.7v = 8.5v Allow a current of 20mA when the supply is 12.6v   Dropper resistor = 200 ohms. Current at 10.8v will be 11mA. And current at 13.6v will be 25mA Now you can see why the value of the CURRENT LIMITING RESISTOR has to be so high. SOLDERING LEDs LEDs are the most heat-sensitive device of all the components. When soldering surface-mount LEDs, you should hold the LED with tweezers and "tack" one end. Then wait for the LED to cool down and solder the other end very quickly. Then wait a few seconds and completely solder the first end. Check the glow of each LED with 3 cells in series and a 220R resistor. If you have overheated the LED, its output will be dim, or a slightly different colour, or it may not work at all. They are extremely sensitive to heat - mainly because the crystal is so close to the soldering iron. HIGH-BRIGHT LEDs LEDs have become more efficient over the past 25 years. Originally a red LED emitted 17mcd @20mA. These LEDs now emit 1,000mcd to 20,000mcd @20mA. This means you can lower the current and still produce illumination. Some LEDs operate on a current as low as 1mA  LEDs as LIGHT DETECTORS LEDs can also be used to detect light. Green LEDs are the best, however all LEDs will detect light and produce a voltage equal to the CHARACTERISTIC VOLTAGE-DROP, providing they receive sufficient light. The current they produce is miniscule however high-bright and super-bright LEDs produce a higher output due to the fact that their crystal is more efficient at converting light into electricity. The Solar Tracker project uses this characteristic to track the sun's movement across the sky. BI-COLOUR, TRI-COLOUR, FLASHING LEDS and 7-colour LEDs LEDs can also be obtained in a range of novelty effects as well as a red and green LED inside a clear or opaque lens. You can also get red, blue, white, green or any combination inside a LED with 2 leads. Simply connect these LEDs to a 6v supply and 330R series dropper resistor to see the effects they produce. Some LEDs have 3 leads and the third lead needs to be pulsed to change the pattern. Some LEDs can be reversed to produce a different colour. These LEDs contain red and green and by reversing the voltage, one or the other colour will illuminate. When the voltage is reversed rapidly, the LED produces orange. Sometimes it is not convenient to reverse the voltage to produce orange. In this case three leaded LEDs are available to produce red, green and orange. FLASHING LEDs Flashing LEDs contain a chip and inbuilt current-limiting resistor. They operate from 3.5v to 12v. NOVELTY LEDs Novelty LEDs can have 2 or three leads. They contain a microcontroller chip, inbuilt current-limiting resistor and two or three colours. The two leaded LEDs cycle through a range of colours, including flashing and fading. The three leaded LEDs have up to 16 different patterns and the control lead must be taken from 0v to rail volts to activate the next pattern.   LEDs LEDs LEDs There are hundreds of circuits that use a LED or drive a LED or flash a LED and nearly all the circuits in this eBook are different. Some flash a LED on a 1.5v supply, some use very little current, some flash the LED very brightly and others use a flashing LED to create the flash-rate. You will learn something from every circuit. Some are interesting and some are amazing. Some consist of components called a "building Block" and they can be added to other circuits to create a larger, more complex, circuit. This is what this eBook is all about. It teaches you how to build and design circuits that are fun to see working, yet practical. You will learn a lot  . . . . even from these simple circuits.  Colin Mitchell TALKING ELECTRONICS. [email protected] SI NOTATION All the schematics in this eBook have components that are labelled using the System International (SI) notation system. The SI system is an easy way to show values without the need for a decimal point. Sometimes the decimal point is difficult to see and the SI system overcomes this problem and offers a clear advantage. Resistor values are in ohms (R), and the multipliers are: k for kilo, M for Mega. Capacitance is measured in farads (F) and the sub-multiples are u for micro, n for nano, and p for pico.  Inductors are measured in Henrys (H) and the sub-multiples are mH for milliHenry and uH for microHenry. A 10 ohm resistor would be written as 10R and a 0.001u capacitor as 1n. The markings on components are written slightly differently to the way they are shown on a circuit diagram (such as 100p on a circuit and 101 on the capacitor or 10 on a capacitor and 10p on a diagram) and you will have to look on the internet under Basic Electronics to learn about these differences.    For photos of nearly every electronic component, see this website: https://www.egr.msu.edu/eceshop/Parts_Inventory/totalinventory.php How good is your power of observation? Can you find the LED:                   POWERING A PROJECT The safest way to power a project is with a battery. Each circuit requires a voltage from 3v to 12v. This can be supplied from a set of AA cells in a holder or you can also use a 9v battery for some projects. If you want to power a circuit for a long period of time, you will need a "power supply." The safest power supply is a Plug Pack (wall-wort, wall wart, wall cube, power brick, plug-in adapter, adapter block, domestic mains adapter, power adapter, or AC adapter). Some plug packs have a switchable output voltage: 3v, 6v, 7.5v, 9v, 12v) DC with a current rating of 500mA. The black lead is negative and the other lead with a white stripe (or a grey lead with a black stripe) is the positive lead. This is the safest way to power a project as the insulation (isolation) from the mains is provided inside the adapter and there is no possibility of getting a shock. The rating "500mA" is the maximum the Plug Pack will deliver and if your circuit takes just 50mA, this is the current that will be supplied. Some pluck packs are rated at 300mA or 1A and some have a fixed output voltage. All these plug packs will be suitable. Some Plug Packs are marked "12vAC."  This type of plug pack is not suitable for these circuits as it does not have a set of diodes and electrolytic to convert the AC to DC. All the circuits in this eBook require DC. PROJECTS       FLASHING A LED These 7 circuits flash a LED using a supply from 1.5v to 12v. They all have a different value of efficiency and current consumption. You will find at least one to suit your requirements. The simplest way to flash a LED is to buy a FLASHING LED as shown in figure A. It will work on 3v to 9v but it is not very bright - mainly because the LED is not high-efficiency. A Flashing LED can be used to flash a super-bright red LED, as shown in figure B. Figure C shows a flashing LED driving a buffer transistor to flash a white LED. The circuit needs 4.5v - 6v.  Figure D produces a very bright flash for a very short period of time - for a red, green, orange or white LED. Figure E uses 2 transistors to produce a brief flash - for a red, green, orange or white LED. Figure F uses a single cell and a voltage multiplying arrangement to flash a red or green LED. Figure G flashes a white LED on a 3v supply.        CONSTANT CURRENT These four circuits delivers a constant 12mA to any number of LEDs connected in series (to the terminals shown) in the following arrangements. The circuits can be connected to 6v, 9v or 12v and the brightness of the LEDs does not alter. You can connect: 1 or 2 LEDs to 6v, 1, 2 or 3 LEDs to 9v or 1, 2, 3 or 4 LEDs to 12v.     The LEDs can be any colour. The constant-current section can be considered as a MODULE and can be placed above or below the load:       WHITE LED on 1.5v SUPPLY This circuit will illuminate a white LED using a single cell. See LED Torch Circuits article for more details.      to Index 2 WHITE LEDs on 1.5v SUPPLY This circuit will illuminate two white LEDs using a single cell. See LED Torch Circuits article for more details.      to Index WHITE LED FLASHER This circuit will flash a white LEDs using a single cell. See LED Torch Circuits article for more details.      to Index SHAKE TIC TAC LED TORCH In the diagram, it looks like the coils sit on the “table” while the magnet has its edge on the table. This is just a diagram to show how the parts are connected. The coils actually sit flat against the slide (against the side of the magnet) as shown in the diagram: The output voltage depends on how quickly the magnet passes from one end of the slide to the other. That's why a rapid shaking produces a higher voltage. You must get the end of the magnet to fully pass though the coil so the voltage will be a maximum. That’s why the slide extends past the coils at the top and bottom of the diagram. The circuit consists of two 600-turn coils in series, driving a voltage doubler. Each coil produces a positive and negative pulse, each time the magnet passes from one end of the slide to the other. The positive pulse charges the top electrolytic via the top diode and the negative pulse charges the lower electrolytic, via the lower diode. The voltage across each electrolytic is combined to produce a voltage for the white LED. When the combined voltage is greater than 3.2v, the LED illuminates. The electrolytics help to keep the LED illuminated while the magnet starts to make another pass.                             to Index   LED DETECTS LIGHT The LED in this circuit will detect light to turn on the oscillator. Ordinary red LEDs do not work. But green LEDs, yellow LEDs and high-bright white LEDs and high-bright red LEDs work very well. The output voltage of the LED is up to 600mV when detecting  very bright illumination. When light is detected by the LED, its resistance decreases and a very small current flows into the base of the first transistor. The transistor amplifies this current about 200 times  and the resistance between collector and emitter decreases. The 330k resistor on the collector is a current limiting resistor as the middle transistor only needs a very small current for the circuit to oscillate. If the current is too high, the circuit will "freeze." The piezo diaphragm does not contain any active components and relies on the circuit to drive it to produce the tone.      to Index 8 MILLION GAIN! This circuit is so sensitive it will detect "mains hum."  Simply move it across any wall and it will detect where the mains cable is located. It has a gain of about 200 x 200 x 200 = 8,000,000 and will also detect static electricity and the presence of your hand without any direct contact. You will be amazed what it detects!  There is static electricity EVERYWHERE! The input of this circuit is classified as very high impedance.   Here is a photo of the circuit, produced by a constructor. to Index   LEDs on 240v I do not like any circuit connected directly to 240v mains. However Christmas tress lights (globes) have been connected directly to the mains for 30 years without any major problems. Insulation must be provided and the lights (LEDs) must be away from prying fingers. You need at least 50 LEDs in each string to prevent them being damaged via a surge through the 1k resistor - if the circuit is turned on at the peak of the waveform. As you add more LEDs to each string, the current will drop a very small amount until eventually, when you have 90 LEDs in each string, the current will be zero. For 50 LEDs in each string, the total characteristic voltage will be 180v so that the peak voltage will be 330v - 180v = 150v. Each LED will see less than 7mA peak during the half-cycle they are illuminated (because the voltage across the 0.22u is 150v and this voltage determines the current-flow). The 1k resistor will drop 7v - since the RMS current is 7mA  (7mA x 1,000 ohms = 7v). No rectifier diodes are needed. The LEDs are the "rectifiers."  Very clever. You must have LEDs in both directions to charge and discharge the capacitor. The resistor is provided to take a heavy surge current through one of the strings of LEDs if the circuit is switched on when the mains is at a peak. This can be as high as 330mA if only 1 LED is used, so the value of this resistor must be adjusted if a small number of LEDs are used. The LEDs above detect peak current. The LEDs are turned on and off 50 times per second and this may create "flickering" or "strobing."  To prevent this flicker, see the DC circuit below: A 100n cap will deliver 7mA RMS or 10mA peak in full wave or 3.5mA RMS (10mA peak for half a cycle) in half-wave.  (when only 1 LED is in each string). The current-capability of a capacitor needs more explanation.  In the  diagram on the left we see a capacitor feeding a full-wave power supply. This is exactly the same as the LEDs on 240v circuit above. Imagine the LOAD resistor is removed. Two of the diodes will face down and two will face up. This is exactly the same as the LEDs facing up and facing down in the circuit above. The only difference is the mid-point is joined. Since the voltage on the mid-point of one string is the same as the voltage at the mid-point of the other string, the link can be removed and the circuit will operate the same. This means each 100n of capacitance will deliver 7mA RMS (10mA peak on each half-cycle). In the half-wave supply, the capacitor delivers 3.5mA RMS (10mA peak on each half-cycle, but one half-cycle is lost in the diode)  for each 100n to the load, and during the other half-cycle the 10mA peak is lost in the diode that discharges the capacitor.  You can use any LEDs and try to keep the total voltage-drop in each string equal. Each string is actually working on DC. It's not constant DC but varying DC. In fact is it zero current for 1/2 cycle then nothing until the voltage rises above the total characteristic voltage of all the LEDs, then a gradual increase in current over the remainder of the cycle, then a gradual decrease to zero over the falling portion of the cycle, then nothing for 1/2 cycle. Because the LEDs turn on and off, you may observe some flickering and that's why the two strings should be placed together. SINGLE LED on 240v A single LED can be illuminated by using a 100n or 220n capacitor with a rating of 400v. These capacitors are called "X2" and are designed to be connected to  the mains. The LED will be 240v above earth if the active and neutral are swapped and this represents a shock of over 340v if anything is exposed. The power diode in the first diagram is designed to discharge the 0.22u during one half of the cycle so that the capacitor will charge during the other half-cycle and deliver energy to the LED. The 1k resistor limits the peak in-rush current when the circuit is first turned on and the mains happens to be at a peak.    Two LEDs can be driven from the same circuit as one LED will be illuminated during the first half cycle and the other LED will be driven during the second half of the cycle.     LEDs can also be connected to the mains via a power diode and current-limiting resistor. But the wattage lost (dropped) in the resistor is about 2.5 watts and a 3 watt resistor will be needed to illuminate a 70mW white LED. This is an enormous waste of energy and a capacitor-fed supply shown above is the best solution. When 50 to 80 white LEDs are connected in series, a resistor can be used. For 50 white LEDs, use a 4k7 2watt resistor to provide 10mA average current. For 100 white LEDs, use a 2k2 1watt resistor to provide 10mA average current. The circuit will not work with more than 95 LEDs as the characteristic voltage-drop across the combination will be more than the peak of the supply (340v).   DC CONNECTION To prevent "flickering' or "strobing," the LEDs must be driven with DC. This requires a BRIDGE. The 0.22u will deliver 15mA when one LED is connected to the output. As additional LEDs are connected, the current gradually reduces to zero with 100 LEDs.   40 LEDs will be provided with: 345 - 145 = 200v  = 200/345 x 15 = 8.6mA to Index MAINS NIGHT LIGHT The circuit illuminates a column of 10 white LEDs. The 10u prevents flicker and the 100R also reduces flicker. This circuit is classified as a CONSTANT CURRENT GENERATOR or CONSTANT CURRENT CIRCUIT. This means any component placed on the output of the circuit will pass 7mA if the capacitor is 100n on a 240v supply or 4.7 x 7mA  = 33mA if the capacitor is 470n. This also applies to a short-circuit on the output. If no load is connected, the output voltage will be 230v x 1.4 = 320v and if the voltage across the load is 100v, the output will be reduced to about 20mA. If the output voltage is 200v, the current will be 10mA and if the output voltage is 300v, the current will be 0mA. In our case the output voltage will be about 35v and the current will be 30mA. This means you cannot add LEDs endlessly. A time will come when they will simply not illuminate. LED DIMMER This circuit will adjust the brightness of one or more LEDs from 5% to 95%. to Index DRIVING A BI-COLOUR LED Some 3-leaded LEDs produce red and green. This circuit alternately flashes a red/green bi-coloured LED: to Index BI-POLAR LED DRIVER Some 2-leaded LEDs produce red and green. These are called Bi-polar LEDs. This circuit alternately flashes a red/green bi-polar LED: to Index RGB LED DRIVER This is a simple driver circuit that drives the 3 LEDs in an RGB LED to produce a number of interesting colours. Even though the component values are identical in the three oscillators, the slight difference in tolerances will create a random display of colours and it will take a while for the pattern to repeat. The colours change abruptly from one colour to another as the circuit does not use Pulse Width Modulation to produce a gradual fading from one colour to another. This LED is called COMMON ANODE. This has been done so it can be connected to transistors or other devices that "SINK."  The second circuit a common cathode LED. Note the different pinout. to Index RGB LED FLASHER This LED flashes at a fast rate then a slow rate. It only requires a current-limiting resistor of 100R for 4.5v to 6v supply or 470R for 7v to 12v supply.   There are two different types of RGB LEDs. The RGB LED Driver circuit above uses an RGB LED with 4 leads and has 3 coloured chips inside and NOTHING ELSE. The LED described in the video has 2 leads and requires a dropper resistor so that about 20mA flows. The LED also contains a microcontroller producing PWM signals. If you cannot get the 2-leaded LED, you can use a 4-leaded LED plus the circuit below. It is an analogue version of the circuit inside the self-flashing LED, for the slow-rate: As with everything Chinese, the self-flashing LED is too gimmicky. It is better to produce your own colour-change via the circuit above. You can alter the rate by changing the value of the components and/or remove one or more of the 100u's. The circuit for a common cathode RGB LED is shown in the RGB LED Driver above. KNIGHT RIDER In the Knight Rider circuit, the 555 is wired as an oscillator. It can be adjusted to give the desired speed for the display. The output of the 555 is directly connected to the input of a Johnson Counter (CD 4017). The input of the counter is called the CLOCK line. The 10 outputs Q0 to Q9 become active, one at a time, on the rising edge of the waveform from the 555. Each output can deliver about 20mA but a LED should not be connected to the output without a current-limiting resistor (330R in the circuit above). The first 6 outputs of the chip are connected directly to the 6 LEDs and these "move" across the display. The next 4 outputs move the effect in the opposite direction and the cycle repeats. The animation above shows how the effect appears on the display. Using six 3mm LEDs, the display can be placed in the front of a model car to give a very realistic effect. The same outputs can be taken to driver transistors to produce a larger version of the display.     Here is a simple Knight Rider circuit using resistors to drive the LEDs. This circuit consumes 22mA while only delivering 7mA to each LED. The outputs are "fighting" each other via the 100R resistors (except outputs Q0 and Q5).                   TRAFFIC LIGHTS Here's a clever circuit using two 555's to produce a set of traffic lights for a model layout. The animation shows the lighting sequence and this follows the Australian-standard. The red LED has an equal on-off period and when it is off, the first 555 delivers power to the second 555. This illuminates the Green LED and then the second 555 changes state to turn off the Green LED and turn on the Orange LED for a short period of time before the first 555 changes state to turn off the second 555 and turn on the red LED. A supply voltage of 9v to 12v is needed because the second 555 receives a supply of about 2v less than rail. This circuit also shows how to connect LEDs high and low to a 555 and also turn off the 555 by controlling the supply to pin 8.  Connecting the LEDs high and low to pin 3 will not work and since pin 7 is in phase with pin 3, it can be used to advantage in this design.   to Index 4 WAY TRAFFIC LIGHTS This circuit produces traffic lights for a "4-way" intersection. The seemingly complex  wiring to illuminate the lights is shown to be very simple. DRIVING MANY LEDS The 555 is capable of sinking and sourcing up to 200mA, but it gets very hot when doing this on a 12v supply. The following circuit shows the maximum number of white LEDs that can be realistically driven from a 555 and we have limited the total current to about 130mA as each LED is designed to pass about 17mA to 22mA maximum. A white LED drops a characteristic 3.2v to 3.6v and this means only 3 LEDs can be placed in series.   3x3x3 CUBE This circuit drives a 3x3x3 cube consisting of 27 white LEDs. The 4020 IC is a 14 stage binary counter and we have used 9 outputs. Each output drives 3 white LEDs in series and we have omitted a dropper resistor as the chip can only deliver a maximum of 15mA per output. The 4020 produces 512 different patterns before the sequence repeats and you have to build the project to see the effects it produces on the 3D cube.   UP/DOWN FADING LED These two circuits make a LED fade on and off. The first circuit charges a 100u and the transistor amplifies the current entering the 100u and delivers 100 times this value to the LED via the collector-emitter pins. The circuit needs 9v for operation since pin 2 of the 555 detects 2/3Vcc before changing the state of the output so we only have a maximum of 5.5v via a 220R resistor to illuminate the LED. The second circuit requires a very high value electrolytic to produce the same effect.     UP/DOWN FADING LED-2 The circuit fades the LED ON and OFF at an equal rate. The 470k charging and 47k discharging resistors have been chosen to create equal on and off times.   BIKE TURNING SIGNAL This circuit can be used to indicate left and right turn on a motor-bike. Two identical circuits will be needed, one for left and one for right.                                       POLICE LIGHTS These three circuits flash the left LEDs 3 times then the right LEDs 3 times, then repeats. The only difference is the choice of chips.   LED DICE with Slow Down This circuit produces a random number from 1 to 6 on LEDs that are similar to the pips on the side of a dice. When the two TOUCH WIRES are touched with a finger, the LEDs flash very quickly and when the finger is removed, they gradually slow down and come to a stop. LED Dice with Slow Down kit is available from Talking Electronics.   ROULETTE This circuit creates a rotating LED that starts very fast when a finger touches the TOUCH WIRES. When the finger is removed, the rotation slows down and finally stops.   to Index DICE TE555-4 This circuit uses the latest  TE555-4 DICE chip from Talking Electronics. This 8-pin chip is available for $2.50 and drives a 7-Segment display. The circuit can be assembled on proto-type board.   LED FX TE555-5 This circuit uses the latest  TE555-5 LED FX chip from Talking Electronics. This 8-pin chip is available for $2.50 and drives 3 LEDs. The circuit can be assembled on matrix board. The circuit produces 12 different sequences including flashing, chasing, police lights and flicker. It also has a feature where you can create your own sequence and it will show each time the chip is turned on.  SOLAR GARDEN LIGHT This is the circuit in a $2.00 Solar Garden Light. The circuit illuminates a white LED from a 1.2v rechargeable cell. SOLAR TRACKER This circuit is a SOLAR TRACKER. It uses green LEDs to detect the sun and an H-Bridge to drive the motor. A green LED produces nearly 1v but only a fraction of a milliamp when sunlight is detected by the crystal inside the LED and this creates an imbalance in the circuit to drive the motor either clockwise or anticlockwise. The circuit will deliver about 300mA to the motor.    BATTERY MONITOR  MkI A very simple battery monitor can be made with a dual-colour LED and a few surrounding components. The LED produces orange when the red and green LEDs are illuminated. The following circuit turns on the red LED below 10.5v The orange LED illuminates between 10.5v and 11.6v. The green LED illuminates above 11.6v BATTERY MONITOR  MkII This battery monitor circuit uses 3 separate LEDs. The red LED turns on from 6v to below 11v. It turns off above 11v and The orange LED illuminates between 11v and 13v. It turns off above 13v and The green LED illuminates above 13v to Index LOW FUEL INDICATOR This circuit has been designed from a request by a reader. He wanted a low fuel indicator for his motorbike. The LED illuminates when the fuel gauge is 90 ohms. The tank is empty at 135 ohms and full at zero ohms. To adapt the circuit for an 80 ohm fuel sender, simply reduce the 330R to 150R. (The first thing you have to do is measure the resistance of the sender when the tank is amply.) LED ZEPPELIN   The game consists of six LEDs and an indicator LED that flashes at a rate of about 2 cycles per second. A push button is the "Operations Control" and by carefully pushing the button in synchronisation with the flashing LED, the row of LEDs will gradually light up. But the slightest mistake will immediately extinguish one, two or three LEDs. The aim of the game is to illuminate the 6 LEDs with the least number of pushes. We have sold thousands of these kits. It's a great challenge. THE DOMINO EFFECT       Here's a project with an interesting name. The original design was bought over 40yearsa ago, before the introduction of the electret microphone. They used a crystal earpiece. We have substituted it with a piezo diaphragm and used a quad op-amp to produce two building blocks. The first is a high-gain amplifier to take the few millivolts output of the piezo and amplify it sufficiently to drive the input of a counter chip. This requires a waveform of at least 6v for a 9v supply and we need a gain of about 600. The other building block is simply a buffer that takes the high-amplitude waveform and delivers the negative excursions to a reservoir capacitor (100u electrolytic). The charge on this capacitor turns on a BC557 transistor and this effectively takes the power pin of the counter-chip to the positive rail via the collector lead. The chip has internal current limiting and some of the outputs are taken to sets of three LEDs.  The chip is actually a counter or divider and the frequency picked up by the piezo is divided by 128 and delivered to one output and divided by over 8,000 by the highest-division output to three more LEDs The other lines have lower divisions. This creates a very impressive effect as the LEDs are connected to produce a balanced display that changes according to the beat of the music. The voltage on the three amplifiers is determined by the 3M3 and 1M voltage-divider on the first op-amp. It produces about 2v. This makes the output go HIGH and it takes pin 2 with it until this pin see a few millivolts above pin3. At this point the output stops rising. Any waveform (voltage) produced by the piezo that is lower than the voltage on pin 3 will make the output go HIGH and this is how we get a large waveform. This signal is passed to the second op-amp and because the voltage on pin 6 is delayed slightly by the 100n capacitor, is also produces a gain. When no signal is picked up by the piezo, pin 7 is approx 2v and pin 10 is about 4.5v.  Because pin 9 is lower than pin 10, the output pin 8 is about 7.7v (1.3v below the supply rail) as this is as high as the output will go - it does not go full rail-to-rail. The LED connected to the output removes 1.7v, plus 0.6v between base and emitter and this means the transistor is not turned on.  Any colour LEDs can be used and a mixture will give a different effect. to Index     10 LED CHASER Here's an interesting circuit that creates a clock pulse for a 4017 from a flashing LED. The flashing LED takes almost no current between flashes and thus the clock line is low via the 1k to 22k resistor. When the LED flashes, the voltage on the clock line is about 2v -3v below the rail voltage (depending on the value of the resistor) and this is sufficient for the chip to see a HIGH. (circuit designed on 9-10-2010)     Emergency PHONE-LINE LIGHT Here's a project that uses the phone line to illuminate a set of white LEDs. The circuit delivers a current of 4.5mA as any current above 10mA will be detected by the exchange as the hand-set off the hook.  Be warned: This type of circuit is not allowed as it uses the energy from the phone line (called "leeching") and may prevent the phone from working.   EQUAL BRIGHTNESS A 2-leaded dual colour LED can be connected to the outputs of a microcontroller and the brightness can be equalized by using the circuits shown.   FLICKERING LED A Flickering LED is available from eBay and some electronics shops. It can be connected to a supply from 2v to 6v and needs an external resistor when the supply is above 3v. The LED has an internal circuit to create the flickering effect and limit the current. We suggest adding a 150R resistor when the supply is above 3v and up to 6v. Above 6v, the current-limit resistor should be increased to 220R for 9v and 330R for 12v. You can connect the flickering LED to an ordinary LED and both will flicker. Here are some arrangements: The Pulse-Width Modulation to activate the flickering can be observed on an oscilloscope by connecting the probe across the LED. It is a very complex waveform. It is approx 1v in amplitude and approx 15 x 1kHz pulses to create each portion of the on-time, something like this: The pulses vary in width to create a brighter illumination.   CONSTANT-CURRENT 7805 DRIVES  1 WATT LED The circuit can be reduced to 2 components: The 7805 can be converted into a content-current device by connecting a resistor as shown above. We will take the operation of the circuit in slow-motion to see how it works. As the 12v rises from 0v, the 7805 starts to work and when the input voltage is 4v, the output is 1v as a minimum of 3v is lost across the 7805. The voltage rises further and when the output is 5v, current flows through the 15R resistor and illuminates the LED. The LED starts to illuminate at 3.4v and the voltage across the 15R at the moment is 1.6v and the output current will be 100mA. The input voltage keeps rising and now the output voltage is 7v. The current through the LED increases and now the voltage across the LED is 3.5v. The voltage across the 15R is 3.5v and the current is 230mA. The input voltage keeps rising and the output voltage is now 8.6v The current through the LED increases and the voltage across the LED is now 3.6v. The voltage across the 15R is 5v and the current is 330mA. The input voltage keeps rising but a detector inside the 7805 detects the output voltage is exactly 5v above the common and the output voltage does not rise any more. The input voltage can rise above 13v, 14v  . . . . 25v or more but the output voltage will not rise. If the output voltage rises, more current will be delivered to the LED and the voltage across the 15R will increase. The 7805 will not allow this to happen. The LED will have 3.6v across it. The 15R will have 5v across it and the output will be 8.6v. The input voltage will have to be at least 12.6v for the 7805 to operate.                                          to  1-WATT LED - very good design Circuit takes 70mA on LOW brightness and 120mA on HIGH Brightness This circuit has been specially designed for a 6v rechargeable battery or 5 x 1.2v NiCad cells. Do not use any other voltage. It has many features: The pulse-operation to the two 1-watt LEDs delivers a high current for a short period of time and this improves the brightness. The circuit can drive two 1-watt LEDs with extremely good brightness and this makes it more efficient than any other design. The circuit is a two-transistor high-frequency oscillator and it works like this: The BD139 is turned ON via the base, through the white LED and two signal diodes and it amplifies this current to appear though the collector-emitter circuit. This current flows though the 1-watt LED to turn it ON and also through the 30-turn winding of the inductor. At the same time the current through the 10R creates a voltage-drop and when this voltage rises to 0.65v, the BC547 transistor starts to turn ON. This robs the base of the BD139 of "turn-on voltage" and the current through the inductor ceases to be expanding flux, but stationary flux. The 1n capacitor was initially pushing against the voltage-rise on the base of the BC547 but it now has a reverse-effect of allowing the BC547 to turn ON. This turns off the BD139 a little more and the current through the inductor reduces. This creates a collapsing flux that produces a voltage across the coil in the opposite direction. This voltage passes via the 1n to turn the BC547 ON and the BD139 is fully turned OFF. The inductor effectively becomes a miniature battery with negative on the lower LED and positive at the anode of the Ultra Fast diode. The voltage produced by the inductor flows through the UF diode and both 1-watt LEDs to give them a spike of high current. The circuit operates at approx 500kHz and this will depend on the inductance of the inductor. The circuit has about 85% efficiency due to the absence of a current-limiting resistor, and shuts off at 4v, thus preventing deep-discharge of the rechargeable cells or 6v battery. The clever part of the circuit is the white LED and two diodes. These form a zener reference to turn the circuit off at 4v. The 10k resistor helps too. The circuit takes 70mA on low brightness and 120mA on HIGH brightness via the brightness-switch. The LEDs actually get 200mA pulses of current and this produces the high brightness. The Inductor The coil or inductor is not critical. You can use a broken antenna rod from an AM radio (or a flat antenna slab) or an inductor from a computer power supply. Look for an inductor with a few turns of thick wire (at least 30) and you won't have to re-wind it. The cost of surplus is from 10 cents to 50 cents, but you are sure to find something from a computer power supply. Pick an inductor that is about 6mm to 10mm diameter and 10mm to 15mm high. Larger inductor will not do any damage. They simply have more ferrite material to store the energy and will not be saturated. It is the circuit that delivers the energy to the inductor and then the inductor releases it to the LEDs via the high speed diode.  IMPROVEMENT By using the following idea, the current reduces to 90mA and 70mA and the illumination over a workbench is much better than a single high-power LED. It is much brighter and much nicer to work under. Connect fifteen 5mm LEDs in parallel (I used 20,000mcd LEDs) by soldering them to a double-sided strip of PC board, 10mm wide and 300mm long. Space them at about 20mm. I know you shouldn't connect LEDs in parallel, but the concept works very well in this case. If some of the LEDs have a characteristic high voltage and do not illuminate very brightly, simply replace them and use them later for another strip. You can replace one or both the 1-watt LEDs with a LED Strip, as shown below: No current-limit resistor.  .  . why isn't the LED damaged? Here's why the LED isn't damaged: When the BD139 transistor turns ON, current flows through the LEDs and the inductor. This current gradually increases due to the gradual turning-on of the transistor and it is also increasing through the inductor. The inductor also has an effect of slowing-down the "in-rush" of current due to the expanding flux cutting the turns of the coil, so there is a "double-effect" on avoiding a high initial current.  That's why there is little chance of damaging the LEDs. When it reaches 65mA, it produces a voltage of .065 x 10 = 650mV across the 10R resistor, but the 1n is pushing against this increase and it may have to rise to 150mA to turn on the BC547. LEDs can withstand 4 times the normal current for very short periods of time and that's what happens in this case. The BD139 is then turned off by the voltage produced by the inductor due to the collapsing magnetic flux and a spike of high current is passed to the LEDs via the high speed diode. During each cycle, the LEDs receive two pulses of high current and this produces a very high brightness with the least amount of energy from the supply. All the components run "cold" and even the 1-watt LEDs are hardly warm. Charging and Discharging This project is designed to use all your old NiCad cells and mobile phone batteries. It doesn't matter if you mix up sizes and type as the circuit takes a low current and shuts off when the voltage is approx 4v for a 6v pack. If you mix up 600mA-Hr cells with 1650mA-Hr, 2,000mA-Hr and 2,400mA-Hr, the lowest capacity cell will determine the operating time. The capacity of a cells is called "C." Normally, a cell is charged at the 14 hour-rate. The charging current is 10% of the capacity. For a 600mA-Hr cell, this is 60mA. In 10 hours it will be fully charged, but charging is not 100% efficient and so we allow another 2 to 4 hours. For a 2,400mA-Hr cell, it is 240mA. If you charge them faster than 14-hr rate, they will get HOT and if they get very hot, they may leak or even explode. But this project is designed to be charged via a solar panel using 100mA to 200mA cells, so nothing will be damaged. Ideally a battery is discharged at C/10 rate. This means the battery will last 10 hours and for a 600mA-Hr cell, this is 60mA. If you discharge it at the "C-rate," it will theoretically last 1 hour and the current will be 600mA. But at 600mA, the cells may only last 45 minutes. If you discharge is at C/5 rate, it will last 5 hours. Our project takes 120mA so no cell will be too-stressed. A 600mA-Hr cell will last about  4-5 hours, while the other cells will last up to 24 hours.   Try to keep the capacity of each cell in a "battery-pack" equal. to Index FL The    to Index FLASHING RAILROAD LIGHTS This circuit flashes two red LEDs for a model railway crossing.  to Index                  to Index If 3rd band is gold, Divide by 10 If 3rd band is silver, Divide by 100 (to get 0.22ohms etc) Not copyright     Colin Mitchell    You can copy and use anything for your own personal use.

With The Union recently improving the Hazel it lead to the birth of a new generation of Kampfers. The Union was now able to give Kampfers better movement, stronger armour and even new generators that weren't as cost heavy but still supplied the same amount of power. One unit that became quickly outdated was the VMr-01 Perses. A ground specific armoured Kampfer that originally was stronger than the Hazel but was slower and costed more. The GSu-027 Hepner was the result of creating a new ground specific unit to replace the Persus with using the new technology and designs. The Hepner is slightly more powerful than the Hazel but slightly slower, but nothing like the Persus was. With the Hepner being smaller and not nearly as heavy armoured, it was cheaper to produce. The Kampfer has several features that makes it stand out from any other current Union Kampfer. It sports built in head vulcans, 3 missiles on each hip, and a built in beam saber on its left arm. Although Hepners were slowly seen because they were not deployed until it could replace a destroyed Persus's spot. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ This was the result of me trying to build an 08th MS Team style Kampfer. I don't feel like I got that look here, other than the obvious knees and the Ground Gundam cannon pose. It's sad to say but my summer break is almost done and this is the only thing that I actually built during it >.> I've got some ideas that I want to try and I hope I can get a good build out of them in the days to come. The one thing I really don't like about the Hepner are the hands. I had made these hands for the Hazel II first and they're great to have guns sit better beside the Kampfer but it's not good for holding beam sabers at all. I know I won't have and beam saber poses anytime soon but it bugs me how ugly it can look.