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CompTIA Cybersecurity CySA+ (CS0-001): Practice Test 1 of 2 - Results (This test consists of frequently tested questions and answers) Which of the following statements best describes an audit file? A.It updates lists of scanned hosts, to avoid unnecessarily rescanning these hosts. B.It produces a list of vulnerabilities found on scanned hosts. C.It produces a list of the hosts that are scanned. D.It gives instructions used to assess the configuration of endpoints and network devices against a compliance policy. - 1D.It gives instructions used to assess the configuration of endpoints and network devices against a compliance policy. Explanation Correct Answer: An audit file in Nessus gives the scan instructions used to assess the configuration of endpoints and network devices against a compliance policy. Incorrect Answers: An audit file is used prior to the scan and does not produce any lists or results after a scan. Which of the following are two types of requirements in the SDLC model? A.Nonfunctional and performance requirements B.Functional and nonfunctional requirements C.Functional and performance requirements D.Functional and security requirements - B.Functional and nonfunctional requirements Explanation Correct Answer: Functional requirements describe what the software must do, and nonfunctional requirements describe how the software must do these things—or what the software must be like. Incorrect Answers: A.Performance requirements are nonfunctional requirements. Performance requirements dictate how well the software must function, which is a nonfunctional requirement.D.A security requirement defines the behaviors and characteristics a system must possess in order to achieve and maintain an acceptable level of security by itself, and in its interactions with other systems. Security requirements are also nonfunctional requirements. Which of the following is an effective way that attackers can use an organization's bandwidth to hide data exfiltration? A.By exfiltrating data during periods of low use. B.By hiding data exfiltration during periods of peak use. C.By attaching sensitive data to otherwise innocuous data while exfiltrating it. D.By downloading information quickly before getting caught - B.By hiding data exfiltration during periods of peak use. Explanation Correct Answer: Patient attackers can hide data exfiltration during periods of peak use by using a lowand-slow approach that can make them exceptionally difficult to detect if administrators are just looking at network traffic. Most attackers, however, will attempt to download sensitive information quickly and thus generate distinctive signals. Incorrect Answers: Each of these other methods will typically trigger alarms and alert administrators to data leaving the network. All of the following are common vulnerabilities that plague most systems within an organization, EXCEPT: A.Weak passwords B.Misconfigured firewall rules C.Missing patches or updates D.Need for compensating controls - D.Need for compensating controls Explanation Correct Answer: The need for compensating controls is not a vulnerability; it is actually a mitigation for vulnerabilities that are not adequately addressed. A compensating control is added to compensate for a weakness in an existing control, to make the control stronger. Incorrect Answers: All of these other choices are common vulnerabilities found in most organizations and affect a variety of systems.During a penetration test exercise, which type of team is responsible for defending the network against the penetration testers and simulated attacks? A.Red team B.Green team C.Blue team D.White team - C.Blue team Explanation Correct Answer: The blue team is the focus of the exercise, as they are defending the network being tested. Their response capabilities and procedures reflect how effective the penetration testing team, also known as the red team, is in its attacks. Incorrect Answers: The red team is the penetration testing team, the blue team the defenders, the white team is composed of the exercise planners and coordinators, and green team is not a valid answer. A large number of ARP queries might indicate which of the following type of attack? A.TCP SYN flood B.Cross-site scripting (XSS) attack C.Ping sweep D.Man-in-the-middle (MITM) attack - C.Ping sweep Explanation Correct Answer: A large amount of ARP queries could indicate that the organization's systems are being scanned, such as during a ping sweep, so the hosts' MAC addresses can be resolved to IP addresses. This is merely a reconnaissance activity designed to map out the network. Incorrect Answers: These other choices are active attacks not related to reconnaissance. D. A man-in-the-middle (MITM) attack involves an attacker inserting himself into an active conversation. A cross-site scripting (XSS) attack is a web-based attack and does not involve generating ARP traffic. A TCP SYN flood involves sending a large amount of TCP segments with the synchronize (SYN) flag set but never completing the three-way TCP handshake. This causes a denial of service (DoS) condition for some hosts.A routine vulnerability scan conducted weekly on different network segments is most likely to be performed by which the following? A.Blue team B.Red team C.White team D.Green team - A.Blue team Explanation Correct Answer: A blue team consists of network defenders and security administrators, who would be responsible for routine security tasks such as patching and vulnerability scanning. Incorrect Answers: A red team is a penetration testing team, and a white team is responsible for planning and coordinating the penetration test. D.Finally, green team is an invalid answer. Which of the following best describes a situation in which a mitigation would be most likely to be selected to protect an asset from risk? A.An asset that has a value of $10,000, which might incur $9,000 worth of damage in a given risk scenario, but can be protected by a mitigation that costs $11,000 B.An asset that has a value of $10,000, which might incur $5000 worth of damage in a given risk scenario, but can be protected by a mitigation that costs $1000 (Correct) C.An asset that has a value of $10,000, which might incur $5000 worth of damage in a given risk scenario, but can be protected by a mitigation that costs $10,000 D.An asset that has a value of $10,000, which might incur $500 worth of damage in a given risk scenario, but can be protected by a mitigation that costs $1000 - B.An asset that has a value of $10,000, which might incur $5000 worth of damage in a given risk scenario, but can be protected by a mitigation that costs $1000 All of the following are metrics associated with the Common Vulnerability Scoring System (CVSS), EXCEPT: A.Security level B.TemporalC.Base D.Groups - A.Security level Explanation Correct Answer: Metrics associated with the Common Vulnerability Scoring System (CVSS) are groups, base, temporal, and environmental. Security level is not a metric in CVSS. Incorrect Answers: These other choices are all metrics associated with the Common Vulnerability Scoring System. Which authority reviews and certifies trusted foundry organizations? A.National Security Agency B.Department of Commerce C.National Institute for Standards and Technology D.Central Intelligence Agency - A.National Security Agency Explanation Correct Answer: The National Security Agency (NSA) is the centralized authority for computer and communications security that certifies trusted foundry organizations. Incorrect Answers: None of these other agencies is charged with certifying trusted foundry manufacturers. Your organization has recently purchased several routers from a distributor with whom you have never done business. At various times, each of the devices has behaved strangely, sending traffic to unknown hosts on the Internet, or not functioning as they have been configured. You suspect that they are counterfeit devices, and possibly compromised. What should you do in the future to ensure that this issue does not occur again? A.Source authenticity B.Device certification C.Firmware hashing D.Hardware reverse engineering - A.Source authenticity ExplanationCorrect Answer: Source authenticity means that you are verifying the distribution source, as well as the manufacturer of the product you are buying. This ensures that you are buying products that are not counterfeit, or compromised in any way. Incorrect Answers: C.Firmware hashing allows you to verify firmware upgrades for an existing device. D.Reverse engineering hardware is something that is done after the fact to determine how an attacker has compromised the device, from its manufacture through the final purchase and delivery. B.Device certification is a process from the manufacturer or an independent organization in which the product is verified as performing certain functions, or performs to a certain performance or security standard. This alone will not solve the problem of counterfeit or compromised devices, because they can be modified after they leave the manufacturer anywhere in the supply chain. You have just performed a vulnerability scan on a system and are reviewing the scan results. You want to immediately eliminate vulnerabilities that might not actually be present on the system. Which the following should you review first to ensure that you eliminate those types of vulnerabilities? A.False exceptions B.False negatives C.False plug-ins D.False positives - D.False positives Explanation Correct Answer: False positives are those types of vulnerabilities that may be reported by the scanner but actually either don't exist or are not vulnerabilities. An example might be a Windows patch is not present on a Linux box, but is reported as a vulnerability on the box. Incorrect Answers: False negatives are actual vulnerabilities that were not discovered during a scan. False plug-ins and false exceptions are terms that do not exist. Which one of the following report formats from Nessus is the most useful when importing data into analysis databases or specialized applications? A.Binary B.CSVC.PDF D.HTML - B.CSV Explanation Correct Answer: Comma Separated Value (CSV) format is a universally accepted textbased format that can be exported from and imported into most applications. Incorrect Answers: C.Not all applications accept PDF inputs, and then only as attached artifacts. Most applications cannot take data directly from PDF. D.Although HTML is sometimes used to generate reports for visual review, it is not a data format per se; it simply formats existing data for display. A.Not all applications can take direct binary data. Some SIEMs, for example, can only accept text-based data. Additionally, Nessus does not export its findings as binary data. Which of the following terms refers to a hardware vendor that can be counted on to produce trusted hardware? A.Trusted foundry B.Trusted producer C.Trusted vendor D.Trusted developer - A.Trusted foundry Explanation Correct Answer: A hardware manufacturer that produces trusted hardware that isn't considered counterfeit or has not been tampered with is referred to as a trusted foundry. Incorrect Answers: None of these other terms refers to a trusted hardware manufacturer. D.A trusted developer produces software, not hardware. C.A trusted vendor may sell various types of hardware or software, but does not manufacture them. Trusted producer is not a valid term. You are securing a sensitive network. You want to set up a solution on the network that doesn't allow malicious traffic to return to a potential attacker. In addition to rule sets onintrusion detection systems, which of the following solutions would prevent ICMP responses from returning to a potential attacker's host machine? A.Honeypot B.DMZ C.Black hole D.Honeynet - C.Black hole Explanation Correct Answer: A black hole is a device that is configured to receive any and all packets with a specific protocol and source or destination address, and not respond to them at all. Usually network protocols will indicate that there is a failure, but with black holes there's no response at all because the packets are silently logged and dropped. Incorrect Answers: A.A honeypot attracts malicious intruders away from sensitive hosts. D.A honey net is a network composed of several honeypots. B.A DMZ is a separated network zone that provides a layer of protection between two or more networks. You suspect that you have a malware infection on a limited number of hosts on the network. You want to test the suspected malware but keep it isolated from other hosts in the network. Which of the following is the best technique in which to test suspected malware? A.Test the malware on a sandbox, such as an isolated system or virtual machine, so you can monitor the malware's effects safely without it propagating. B.Test the malware in a preproduction environment to see how it interacts with your test network. C.Test the malware by installing it on noncritical hosts to monitor the effects. D.Test the malware by installing it on critical hosts, and be prepared to restore from a backup if it affects them. - A.Test the malware on a sandbox, such as an isolated system or virtual machine, so you can monitor the malware's effects safely without it propagating. ExplanationCorrect Answer: You should always test malware on an isolated system, which can be an isolated host or a virtual machine that in no way connects to other hosts or the network. Incorrect Answers: B. You do not want to test the malware on your preproduction environment, as it would be possible for the malware to eventually make it to the production network the next time you move upgraded or tested software or patches to the production network. C.You also do not want to test the malware by installing it on noncritical hosts, because the malware could propagate to critical ones. D.Finally, you do not want to test the malware on any critical hosts because of the downtime involved when you restore from a backup. Which of the following tools natively generates evidence in the E01 file format? A.The Sleuth Kit B.dd C.EnCase D.FTK Imager - C.EnCase Explanation Correct Answer: EnCase natively generates evidence in the E01 file format. Incorrect Answers: Although in some cases these utilities can read the EO1 file format, none of the other choices generates evidence in that format. B&A.D..Both dd and The Sleuth Kit generate evidence in a raw format, and FTK Imager has its own proprietary format. Which of the following types of tests is one in which the participants are defending real or simulated information systems against real (though friendly) attackers? A.Blue team B.Live-fire exercise (LFX) C.Red team D.Tabletop exercise (TTX) - B.Live-fire exercise (LFX)Explanation Correct Answer: A live-fire exercise (LFX) is one in which the participants are defending real or simulated information systems against real (though friendly) attackers. Incorrect Answers: D. A tabletop exercise is merely a procedural and documentation review. C.A red team is a penetration testing team. A.A blue team is a computer network defense team. Your software development team has developed an application that is currently being examined for security issues. During testing activities, the security team finds that potential users would be able to circumvent security controls and access more data than they should from the application. The security team believes that the cause for this is faulty data that the user can enter into the system. Which the following does the development team need to focus its attention on to resolve this issue? A.Input validation B.Encryption C.Parameter validation D.Authentication - A.Input validation Explanation Correct Answer: Input validation involves checking the user's potential input to ensure that it meets the requirements of the data fields. This means that input should be checked against character type and length, and restricted to only the type of data being requested. Incorrect Answers: C.Parameter validation involves validating data that does not come from the user, but from the system. D.Authentication would not prevent faulty data from being entered into the system. Authentication only controls who is able to access an application and its data. B.Encryption would not prevent faulty data from being entered into the system either. Encryption only ensures that the transmission of data is secured.The Windows registry location HKLM\Software\Microsoft\Windows\CurrentVersion\Run is an example of what type of item that is of interest to forensics investigators? A.Autorun locations B.Most recently used (MRU) lists C.Protected storage D.Previously logged-in users - A.Autorun locations Explanation Correct Answer: HKLM\Software\Microsoft\Windows\CurrentVersion\Run is an example of a registry entry that shows an autorun location. It lists programs that are designed to start up immediately and automatically when Windows starts. Malware often starts from this location. Incorrect Answers: The other registry location do not list any of these items. You are tasked with performing an external penetration test against an organization. In preparation for the test, you gather information about the organization, its infrastructure, its people, and so forth. What additional key piece of planning do you need to ensure you have in place before the test begins? A.DNS names B.Formal written authorization C.Network diagram D.IP address space - B.Formal written authorization Explanation Correct Answer: Above all else, you must have formal written authorization from the organization in order to perform a penetration test on it. This written authorization protects you from legal liability and ensures that details such as the schedule, scope, and limitations are spelled out clearly for both the organization and the test team. Incorrect Answers: Depending on the type of test, you may or may not receive technical details regarding the target organization, such as IP address space, DNS information, and infrastructure diagrams. They are not necessarily critical to the test, but the authorization is. Which of the following analysis techniques involves examining past data to predict future patterns?A.Trend analysis B.Historical analysis C.Statistical analysis D.Regression analysis - A.Trend analysis Explanation Correct Answer: Trend analysis involves looking at past data to predict future trends or patterns. Incorrect Answers: B.Historical analysis involves looking at previous data and making adjustments to current baselines based on past performance. C&D.Regression and statistical analyses are simply other analysis techniques. Which of the following are advantages to using cloud computing to enhance endpoint protection? (Choose two.) A.Corrupted data can be backed up to the cloud in the event of a malware infection. B.Rapid file reputation determination and behavioral analysis. C.Increased likelihood of malware transmitted to hosts from data stored in the cloud. D.Automatic sharing of threat data across the infrastructure to minimize security risks. - D.Automatic sharing of threat data across the infrastructure to minimize security risks. B.Rapid file reputation determination and behavioral analysis. Explanation Correct Answers: Cloud computing provides rapid file reputation determination and behavioral analysis, as well as threat data sharing across the entire infrastructure quickly, in order to prevent security incidents and lower risk. Incorrect Answers: A.Corrupted data should not be backed up to the cloud, as you risk maintaining corrupted data that will later be reintroduced back into the system. C.Additionally, an increased likelihood of malware being transmitted to hosts from cloud storage is a disadvantage rather than an advantage

Money is the most dominant human transaction tool in modern human life, even human life is always in contact with money both in communication and in association because money demands value and form of authority of a person or family, when money is used as a tool for transactions money has value added by the rotation of regional and national and international money transactions, money for individuals and groups and countries shows the ability and legitimacy of those who have it that a person or group and country has the ability to develop and move forward for innovation and research in various fields of technology. the velocity of money is faster, the development of money and interest from the quality of money is also more beautiful and quality. money in the practice of human life has its own place in our lives from the past to the present, where now money has a faster turnaround speed and is more transparent and accountable than when it used currency and demand deposits or more backward that is barter (barter = where money has no advanced meaning yet). electronic money allows more money and faster technological developments in various fields, but there are obstacles when it comes to the regulation of life in various countries on earth. movement of money economy because the people who are still not ready to move quickly. Today's humans live without money like side dishes without salt and without lighting where we do not know what is served and do not know how to process it and enjoy it from all that God has given to us all on earth. we should thank the Father who belongs to heaven that he gives us the resources that we can manage well and with good added value and good transaction tools that are faster and more precise and accurate so that technological developments can be achieved appropriately as well as prosperity evenly distributed in all places and changing human mentality to be more solid that cannot be swayed by the flow of dramatic life                                           LOVE  ( Line On Victory Endless )                                                        Gen. Mac Tech Zone e- speed of rotation of electronic money                                      A. XO Transforming Money  finance was transformed from a clubby world of cozy relationships to a mathematical one of complex securities, abstract formulas and computing power.  Now, a generation later, the financial industry is about to be remade once again, except this time, it is not obscure financial securities that are being transformed, but very nature of money itself. What is Money? Money : It was a much more efficient way to transact business than bartering one good for another.  Money was also a useful store of wealth, certainly more convenient than livestock or grains.  These two core functions—a medium of exchange and a store of value—still define money today. Many people object to the concept of fiat money because of the control governments have over it.  Central banks can increase or decrease the money supply at will, giving them enormous control over economic activity. In extreme cases, hyperinflation can ensue, debasing the currency and wreaking havoc. So it’s not surprising that innovating the concept of money through a digital currency has been a recurring theme in technology circles.  Intuitively, it seems that the global financial system should be based on more than the judgments of a small group of central bankers. Yet only recently has digital money actually become possible. Another solution would be to create unforgeable signatures, which is what digital technology makes possible (digital signatures have been around for some time).  Moreover, in digital form, these signatures can be distributed—both instantly and ubiquitously—making it an ideal vehicle for an alternative currency to fiat money. It works through a widely distributed digital ledger, which makes it not only super secure, but also incredibly efficient because payment processing is automatic. Further, it is unlikely that a digital currency will ever displace national ones like the dollar.  As long as governments have the power to tax, they have the power to demand payment in whatever form they choose.  Invariably, that will be a national currency.                  Facilitating Transactions While digital currencies are unlikely to impact national currencies’ role as a store of value, there is vast potential in using vehicles like Bitcoin as a medium of exchange.  Consider that Visa and Mastercard make over $30 billion per year in interchange fees and you can see the possibilities.  Bitcoin can do a far better job at a much lower cost. Remember that Bitcoin has a widely distributed ledger, so it’s much more impervious to attack than a centralized institution like a bank.  It also transacts business instantaneously, so there is no “float” (i.e. the bank can’t keep your money in limbo while it earns interest on it) and because processing is automated, fees can be lowered substantially. TechCrunch describes another interesting aspect of digital currencies, the ability to program currency to create new financial products with functionality built in.  Imagine being able to set up an automated escrow account or a trust on your smartphone, with no lawyers involved. Digital currency is still a very new concept and these are merely initial ideas.  Surely, as the market and technology matures, more useful applications will arise. Money has always been intertwined with centralized power.  Only governments could issue it and only banks had the resources to facilitate transactions.  That model worked well enough, but had obvious drawbacks.  Many were shut out of the system while others earned fortunes as gatekeepers. The revolution underway in finance going on now has the potential to be even more consequential than the one that happened back in the 70's.  While financial innovation transformed many practices in the industry, its institutions remained intact.  The financial world today is still lorded over by a relatively small collection of bankers, clearing houses and regulators. Digital technology, however, is making finance exponentially more democratic. Crowdfunding and microlending have made it possible for people to acquire financing who never could before.  New payment systems like Square, Paypal and Apple Pay have made it easier for merchants to accept electronic payment.            SYSTEM AND METHOD FOR PROTECTING ELECTRONIC MONEY TRANSACTIONS Yet digital currency is something else altogether because it represents a decentralized form of money that is more secure, more fungible and more functional than anything we’ve seen before.  More than a mere store of value or medium of exchange, digital money has the potential to be more transformative than anything we’ve seen before.     B. XO  Transforming Aspect Real MONEY  To  e- MONEY   The value of money at the moment is experiencing a significant shift where the amount of wealth that can be owned by individuals can increase and increase all because of the availability of financial transactions in instrumentation and measurement in the method of financial electronics. when we are in the real money era, namely currency and demand, we always have a variety of physical evidence of the value of money, either in the form of whole or in the form of checks, can go forward or check backwards, and withdrawals are limited and require space and the place also takes a lot of time in making the value of money as a transaction tool which of course greatly nullifies a business in a mega project that requires fast and limited cash flow in times and times that are fast and appropriate in disbursing the value of money to customers, owners and founders also every member of the community who is competent in the business of value money. in the era of industry that is growing rapidly, especially the attraction of pure technology for industrial processes that are prolonged and developing continuously, transaction tools are needed that can move the economic rotation on a macro and cash basis in a micro manner quickly, precisely and easily and credibly can also be accountable. makes it easy for us to develop new and renewable industrial methods and techniques for excavating techniques on planets outside the earth and the solar system.  some comparative tool for the value of money that is now on earth as we know it is NPV, where the NPV value in the era of financial electronics transactions will accelerate and slow down which is more measurable and controlled and reduces human error both intentional and incidental: 1. The NPV in the micro sense is the difference between disbursed expenditure and income by using the social opportunity cost of capital as a factor discount, or in other words a cash flow that is expected to be discounted in the future.  2. NPV in the sense of macro is money in the present is worth more than the same as inflation, and earnings from alternative investments that can be made during the intervening time. In other words, a dollar earned in the future won't be as much as one earned in the present.                                                                                                                 the main difference between the profitability index and net present value                                                   how in the era of real money when people or individuals could hoard money such as hoarding rice and wheat barns and corn that needed a place, moths and rust could damage it and require up-to-date maintenance and maintenance costs and this raises the value of money which drops dramatically. our tendency to return to the era of the Barter era in which without proper management of the value of money but in the era of financial electronics all did not need to be stockpiled such as hoarding rice, corn and wheat but kept in the place of financial electronics which were also more private and safe to manage without super tight guard because it has been protected by a system of qualified financial electronic instruments and measurements. of course the value of money transactions are more useful and efficient are also effective and penetrate the value of money for better and more effective prosperity as well as energy for all of us.            C.  XO   Discounted Cash Flow and the Time Value of Money Aspect  Time value of money concepts are the cornerstone of modern finance. finance. What are "Discounted Cash Flow" and the "Time Value of Money?" Discounted cash flow DCF is an application of the time value of money concept—the idea that money that will be received or paid at some time in the future has less value, today, than an equal amount collected or paid today. The DCF calculation finds the value appropriate today—the present value—for the future cash flow.The term "discounting" applies because the DCF "present value" is always lower than the cash flow future value. In modern finance, "time value of money" concepts play a central role in decision support and planning. When investment projections or business case results extend more than a year into the future, professionals trained in finance usually want to see cash flows presented in two forms, with discounting and without discounting. Financial specialists, that is, want to know the time value of money impact on long-term projections. Two Central Terms: Present Value and Future Value In discounted cash flow analysis DCF, two "time value of money" terms are central: Present value (PV) is what the future cash flow is worth today. Future value (FV) is the value that flows in or out at the designated time in the future. A $100 cash inflow that will arrive two years from now could, for example, have a present value today of about $95, while its future value is by definition $100. For each cash flow event, the present value is less than the corresponding future value, except for cash flow events occurring today, in which case PV = FV). The further into the future before a cash flow event occurs, the more discounting lowers the present value below its future value. the total of all of the cash flow present values for the cash flow series, across a timespan extending into the future, is the net present value (NPV) of a cash flow stream.  DCF is center stage when decision makers and investors evaluate potential investments, action proposals, or purchases. Looking forward in time, the analyst projects cash inflows and outflows (cash flow streams) the investor can expect from each of these. Other things being equal, analysts will recommend the action or investment with the more substantial cash flow NPV, as the "better business decision." When first hearing the definition of discounted cash flow, many people understandably react with comments like these: "It sounds like fiction" or "The time value of money cannot refer to real value because DCF does not measure real cash flow" or "It's an interesting calculation, but there's no tangible value involved." However, business professionals recognize that the results of discounting calculations do represent real tangible value, readily seen when they state the time value of money concept like this: Having the use of money for some time has a value that is tangible, measurable, and real. Discounted cash flow (DCF) is one application of this concept, while interest paidfor a loan is another. With DCF, the discounting lowers the present value PV of future funds below the future value FV of the funds for at least three reasons: Opportunity. Funds you have now could (in principle) be invested now, and gain return or interest between the present and the future time. You cannot use now funds that you will not have until a "future" time.  Risk. Funds you have now are not at risk, but funds arriving in the future are uncertain. A well-known proverb states this principle more colorfully: "A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush." Inflation. A sum you have today will very likely buy more than an equal amount you will not have until years in future. The buying power of money decreases over time due to inflation.  What future money is worth today is called its present value (PV) and what it will be worth in the future when it finally arrives is called not surprisingly its future value (FV). The right to receive a $100 payment one year from now (the future value) might be worth to us today $95 (its present value). Present value, in other words, discounts to a value below future value. Present Values for a Cash Flow Stream When the analysis concerns a series of cash inflows or outflows coming at different future times, the series is called a cash flow stream. Each future cash flow has its value today (its present value). The sum of these "present values" is the "net present value" for the cash flow stream. Consider an investment today of $100, that brings net gains of $100 each year for six years. The future values and present values of these cash flow events might look like this: One 6-Year cash flow stream, as Future Values (FV) and Present Values (PV) at two discount rates. All three sets of bars represent the same investment cash flow stream. Black bars stand for cash flow figures in the currency units when they arrive in the future (future values). Green and Blue bars are values of the same cash flows now, in present value terms. The net values in the legend show that after five years, the net cash flow expected is $500, but the Net present value (NPV) today is discounted to something less. The next section explains the role of the discount rate (a percentage) and time periods in determining NPV. Interest Rates and Time Periods in Discounting The size of the discounting effect depends on two things: the amount of time between now and each future payment (the number of discounting periods) and an interest rate called the discount rate. The example shows that: As the number of discounting periods between now and the cash arrival increases, the present value decreases. As the discount rate (interest rate) in the "present value" calculations increases, the present value decreases.  Whether you will or will not calculate present values yourself, your ability to use and interpret NPV / DCF figures will benefit from a simple understanding of the way that interest rates and discounting periods work together to create DCF. If you Many if not most business people outside of finance, are unfamiliar with "time value of money" terms and calculations. The subject becomes approachable, however, if the explanation begins by noting that DCF mathematics are very closely related to that is familiar to most people:calculations for interest growth and compounding. Remember briefly how interest calculations work. The FV formula looks into the future and might ask, for instance: What is the future value (FV) in one year, of $100 invested today (the PV), at an annual interest rate of 5%? FV1  = $100 ( 1 + 0.05)1 = $105 When the FV is more than one period into the future, as most people know, interest compounding takes place. Interest earned in earlier periods begins to "earn interest on itself," in addition to interest on the original PV. Compound interest growth is delivered by the exponent in the FV formula, showing the number of periods. What is the future value in five years of $100 invested today at an annual interest rate of 5%?. FV5  = $100 ( 1 + 0.05)5 = $128 The same formula can be rearranged to deliver a "present value" given a "future value" and "interest rate" for input, as shown.  Now, the formula starts in the future and looks backward in time, toward today. The formula now asks: What is the value today of a $100 payment arriving in one year, using a discount rate of 5%? PV1 = ($100) / (1.0 + 0.05)1          = $100 / (1.05)         = $95  You should be able to see why PV will decrease if we either (a) increase the interest rate, or (b) increase the number of periods before the FV arrives. What is the present value of $100 we will receive in 5 years, using a 5% discount rate? PV5  = $100 / (1.0 +0.05)5          = $100 / (1.276)          = $75.13 When the FV is more than one period into the future, as most people know, interest compounding takes place. Interest earned in earlier periods begins to compound, in addition to interest on the original PV. Compound interest growth is delivered by the exponent in the FV formula, showing the number of periods. What is the future value in five years of $100 invested today at an annual interest rate of 5%?. FV5  = $100 ( 1 + 0.05)5          = $128 When discounting is applied to a series of cash flow events, a cash flow stream, as illustrated in the graph example above, net present value for the stream is the sum of PVs for each FV:   Year-end discounting for a stream of n future cash flow events (FVs). Should You Use Mid-Period (or Mid-Year) Discounting? What Difference Does it Make? Finally, note two commonly used variations on the examples shown thus far. The cases above and most textbooks present first the "Period-end" (or "Year-end") discounting. Period-end discounting is the more frequently used DCF approach. The approach, moreover, usually turns up as the default approach for spreadsheet and calculator DCF functions. Period-End Discounting With the period-end approach, discounting works as though all cash flow occurs on the last day of each period. When periods are one year in length, of course, analysts call this the year-end approach. With year-end discounting, all of the period's cash flow is assumed to occur on day 365 of the year.  Mid-Period Discounting Some financial analysts, however, prefer to assume that cash flows are distributed more or less evenly throughout the period. For them, discounting should, therefore, be applied when the cash flows during the period. Calculating present values this way is mathematically equivalent to saying that all cash flow occurs at mid-period.  For this reason, this approach is called mid-period discounting. And, of course, the name mid-year discounting applies when periods are one year in length.  What Are the Differences Between the Two Approaches? Period-end discounting is more severe (has a more substantial discount effect) than the mid-period approach. Period-end calculations are more severe than mid-period versions because they impact all of the period's cash flow for the full period. You can see how this works mathematically from the formulas in the next section. The period-end approach divides each FV value by a more substantial discount factor than do mid-period calculations. Some analysts prefer to describe the difference between approaches by saying the "period-end" discounting is the more conservative approach. Those preferring the other approach say that discounting mid-period is more accurate. Remember that the discount rate recognizes the values of opportunity, risk, and inflation—values that can change as time passes. Mid-period discounting comes closer, they say, to applying the discounting effect precisely when cash flows. Formulas for Mid-Period Discounting The methods below show NPV calculations for the mid-year approach (at panel top) and for discounting with periods other than one year (at mid-panel). The first NPV formula shows how the present value formula applies for mid-year discounting. And, the second NPV formula shows the calculation for periods other than one-year. In any case, the business analyst will want to find out which of the above discount methods is preferred by the organization's financial specialists, and why, and follow their practice (unless there is justification for doing otherwise). Choosing a Discount (Interest) Rate for Cash Flow Analysis The analyst will also want to find out from the organization's financial specialists which discount rate the organization uses for discounted cash flow analysis. Financial officers who have been with an organization for some time, usually develop good reasons for choosing one discount rate or another as the most appropriate rate for the organization. In private industry, many companies use their own cost of capital (or a weighted average cost of capital) as the preferred discount rate. Government organizations typically prescribe a discount rate for use in the organization's planning and decision support calculations. In the United States, for instance, the Office of Management and Budget (OMB) publishes a quarterly circular with prescribed discount rates for Federal Government use. Financial officers may use a higher discount rate for investments or decisions viewed as risky, and a lower discount rate when expected returns from a proposed action come with less risk. The higher "discount rate" is a hedge against risk, because it puts relatively more emphasis (weight) on near-term returns compared to distant future returns.  Comparing Competing Investment Proposals with DCF and NPV Consider two competing investments in computer equipment. Each calls for an initial cash outlay of $100, and each returns $200 over the next five years making for a net gain of $100. But the timing of the returns is different, as shown in the table below (Case Alpha and Case Beta), and therefore the present value of each year's gains is different. The sum of each investment's "present values" is called the discounted cash flow (DCF) or "net present value" (NPV). Using a 10% discount rate again, we find:   Timing CASE Alpha CASE Beta Net Cash Flow "Present Value" Net Cash Flow "Present Value"   Now – $100.00 – $100.00  – $100.00 – $100.00   Year 1 $60.00 $54.54 $20.00 $18.18   Year 2 $60.00 $49.59 $20.00 $16.52   Year 3 $40.00 $30.05 $40.00 $30.05   Year 4 $20.00 $13.70 $60.00 $41.10   Year 5 $20.00 $12.42 $60.00 $37.27   Total Net CFA =  $100.00 NPVA = $60.30 Net CFB = $100.00 NPVB = $43.12 Comparing the two investments, the larger the early returns in Case Alpha lead to a better net present value (NPV) than the later large return in Case Beta. Note especially the Total line for each present value column in the table. This total is the net present value (NPV) of each cash flow stream." When choosing alternative investments or actions, other things being equal, the one with the higher NPV is a better investment. What Roles Do DCF and NPV Play in Business Case Analysis? In brief, an NPV / DCF view of the cash flow stream should probably appear with a business case summary when: The business case deals with an "investment" scenario of any kind, to compare different uses for funds. The business case covers a long period (two or more years). Inflows and outflows change differently over time. For example, the most substantial "inflows" come at a different time from the most substantial "outflows." Two or more alternative cases for comparison differ concerning cash flow timing within the analysis period.                  D. XO   Net Present Value (NPV) as a Capital Budgeting Method  What is net present value and how is it used in capital budgeting? Companies often use net present value as a capital budgeting method because it's perhaps the most insightful and useful method to evaluate whether to invest in a new capital project. It is more refined from both a mathematical and time-value-of-money point of view than either the payback period or discounted payback period methods. It is also more insightful in certain ways than the ​profitability index or internal rate of return calculations.​​ What Is Net Present Value? Net present value is one of many capital budgeting methods used to evaluate potential physical asset projects in which a company might want to invest. Usually, these capital investment projects are large in terms of scope and money, such as purchasing an expensive set of assembly-line equipment or constructing a new building. Net present value uses discounted cash flows in the analysis, which makes the net present value more precise than of any of the capital budgeting methods as it considers both the risk and time variables. A net present value analysis involves several variables and assumptions and evaluates the cash flows forecasted to be delivered by a project by discounting them back to the present using information that includes the time span of the project (t) and the firm's weighted average cost of capital (i). If the result is positive, then the firm should invest in the project. If negative, the firm should not invest in the project. Capital Projects Using Net Present Value Before you can use net present value to evaluate a capital investment project, you'll need to know if that project is a mutually exclusive or independent project. Independent projects are those not affected by the cash flows of other projects. Mutually exclusive projects, however, are different. If two projects are mutually exclusive, it means there are two ways of accomplishing the same result. It might be that a business has requested bids on a project and a number of bids have been received. You wouldn't want to accept two bids for the same project. That is an example of a mutually exclusive project. When you are evaluating two capital investment projects, you have to evaluate whether they are independent or mutually exclusive and make an accept-or-reject decision with that in mind. Net Present Value Decision Rules Every capital budgeting method has a set of decision rules. For example, the payback period method's decision rule is that you accept the project if it pays back its initial investment within a given period of time. The same decision rule holds true for the discounted payback period method. Net present value also has its own decision rules, which include the following: Independent projects: If NPV is greater than $0, accept the project. Mutually exclusive projects: If the NPV of one project is greater than the NPV of the other project, accept the project with the higher NPV. If both projects have a negative NPV, reject both projects. Example: Calculation of Net Present Value Say that firm XYZ Inc. is considering two projects, Project A and Project B, and wants to calculate the NPV for each project. Project A is a four-year project with the following cash flows in each of the four years: $5,000, $4,000, $3,000, $1,000. Project B is also a four-year project with the following cash flows in each of the four years: $1,000, $3,000, $4,000, $6,750. The firm's cost of capital is 10 percent for each project, and the initial investment is $10,000. The firm wants to determine and compare the net present value of these cash flows for both projects. Each project has uneven cash flows. In other words, the cash flows are not annuities. Following is the basic equation for calculating the present value of cash flows, NPV(p), when cash flows differ each period: NPV(p) = CF(0) + CF(1)/(1 + i)t + CF(2)/(1 + i)t + CF(3)/(1 + i)t + CF(4)/(1 + i)t Where: i = firm's cost of capital t = the year in which the cash flow is received CF(0) = initial investment To work the NPV formula: Add the cash flow from Year 0, which is the initial investment in the project, to the rest of the project cash flows. The initial investment is a cash outflow, so it is a negative number. In this example, the cash flows for each project for years 1 through 4 are all positive numbers. Tip: You can extend this equation for as many time periods as the project lasts. To calculate the NPV for Project A: NPV(A) = (-$10,000) + $5,000/(1.10)1 + $4,000/(1.10)2 + $3,000/(1.10)3 + $1,000/(1.10)4 = $788.20 The NPV of Project A is $788.20, which means that if the firm invests in the project, it adds $788.20 in value to the firm's worth. NPV Disadvantages Although NPV offers insight and a useful way to quantify a project's value and potential profit contribution, it does have its drawbacks. Since no analyst has a crystal ball, every capital budgeting method suffers from the risk of incorrectly estimated critical formula inputs and assumptions, as well as unexpected or unforeseen events that can affect a project's costs and cash flows. The NPV calculation relies on estimated costs, an estimated discount rate, and estimated projected return. It also can't factor in unforeseen expenses, time delays, and any other issues that come up on the front or back end, or during the project. Also, the discount rate and cash flows used in an NPV calculation often don't capture all of the potential risks, assuming instead the maximum cash flow values for each period of the project. This leads to a false sense of confidence for investors, and firms often run different NPV scenarios using conservative, aggressive, and most-likely sets of assumptions to help mitigate this risk. Alternative Evaluation Methods In some cases, especially for short-term projects, simpler methods of evaluation make sense. The payback-period method calculates how long it will take to earn back the project's initial investment. Although it doesn't consider profits that come in once the initial costs are paid back, the decision process might not need this component of the analysis. The method only makes sense for short-term projects because it doesn't consider the time value of money, which renders it less effective for multiyear projects or inflationary environments. The internal rate of return (IRR) analysis is another often-used option, although it relies on the same NPV formula. IRR analysis differs in that it considers only the cash flows for each period and disregards the initial investment. Additionally, the result is derived by solving for the discount rate, rather than plugging in an estimated rate as with the NPV formula. The IRR formula result is on an annualized basis, which makes it easier to compare different projects. The NPV formula, on the other hand, gives a result that considers all years of the project together, whether one, three, or more, making it difficult to compare to other projects with different time frames.            D. XO    Aspect NPV on The Next-generation digital payment technology                                    Use Due Cash payment system with anyone You can make, share, or receive payments from anyone in the U.S. who has a phone number or email account regardless if they are actually using the Due Cash payment system and digital wallet. All they need to do is create a Due account to claim or make their payment. Find others you know with a Due account simply by syncing your smartphone contacts. All personal and financial data is encrypted and protected on Due’s secure servers. We work tirelessly to ensure that our security system meets or even exceeds the current security industry standards.            Our next-generation digital payment technology guards against any type of unauthorized transaction. If you believe that there has been unauthorized activity on your Due digital wallet .    If you have lost your phone or believe it is being used in an unauthorized way, you can protect your Due digital wallet by visiting Passwords & Authorizations within your online account settings. Here, you can revoke access from your phone so it will log out of any active sessions within your Due digital wallet.    Only use your Due digital wallet and eCash payment system with people you know. We don’t permit merchants to make sales via Due or offer buyer or seller protection.                                                E-CASH INDUSTRY The advancement of technology has helped electronic payments grow significantly. For example, in 1968 the exchanging of electronic data became commonplace for anyone looking to transfer money. In 1974, Robert Moreno patented technology for smart cards, which was followed by the first ATMs in the United States. Before the decade was over, electronic terminals called, “EFTPOS” (meaning, for non-cash bank payments) were being used in the United States. Five short years later in 1984, email was being used by enterprises everywhere in the financial sector to communicate with customers.  Cash without acknowledging the release of the first PC by IBM in 1981. The PC made it possible to develop microelectronics, which would quickly allow for microprocessors to be installed in a credit card.  David Chaum, a U.S. citizen and brilliant mathematician, became the head of cryptography at the Dutch national research center CWI. Dr. Chaum was responsible for the invention of secure digital cash, along with the idea of blind signatures for untraceable payments. This resulted in the founding of the first electronic payment system in the world, DigiCash. Unfortunately, DigiCash went bankrupt in 1998 and sold its assets to eCash Technologies. However, DigiCash had already left an impact everywhere in the eCash world. At one American bank, the customers had already embraced the eCash idea, with 90% of its depositors using the system. At the “Real World Crypto” conference held at Stanford University January 6, 2016, Chaum was back with information on a new plan for encryption, called PrivaTegrity which he is working on with a whole team of experts from other universities. This group of academic partners hopes to allow a system that will fully allow secret and anonymous communication, including eCash capabilities, to be totally secure and be fast enough to work as a smartphone app. It is unknown if the project is fully coded and tested. Particularly compelling was Dr. Chaum’s claim that we may be able to have a “civil society electronically without the possibility of covert mass surveillance.” Dr. Chaum’s DigiCash wasn’t the only company exploring the electronic cash industry .  The 2000’s saw impressive gains in the use and acceptance of eCash as a result of advances in technology. Some of the most notable occurrences have been: Bitcoin, a digital asset and a payment system, was invented in 2009. Google’s mobile payment system, Google Wallet, is released in 2011. Following in the steps of Google, Apple, Android, and Samsung release mobile payment and digital wallets services in 2014 and 2015. The United States makes the switch to EMV cards – which stands for Europay, MasterCard, and Visa – in 2016. HOW DOES ECASH WORK? How exactly does eCash work? To have a better understanding, let’s first familiarize ourselves with how money traditionally flows using eCash. Withdrawal. Users have the ability to convert money from their eCash accounts into eCash coins. However, access can only be granted to the eCash account if the user can sign the withdrawal request. The signature is checked against the public key that has been registered with the ecash account since the coins are accessed using a password-encryption. Payment. In order to pay a specified amount, a set of coins that equal the desired amount must be selected. If you were using the on-line ecash system, the set of coins would be encrypted for the bank through the bank’s unique public key. The shop then deposits the payment at their bank, who then credits the merchant’s eCash account, as long as all coins are valid. The accepted coins are added to the database of spent coins to prevent them from being spent again. Payment deposit. Again, using the on-line ecash system, this protocol would be completed by the shop or merchant. The most important component of the payment protocol is that the payment deposit will be made specifically to the payee. Coin redemption. Coins can be directly returned to the mint without using them in a payment if they’ve expired, need to be refreshed, or need improved distributions. Recovery. If coins that have been lost they can be recovered through a protocol carried out between the user and the mint. Now that we’re aware of how the money flows, it’s time to realize that the money flow can only be accomplished through the cooperation of the following four components: Issuers. These can either be financial institutions, or non-bank institutions. Customers. These are the individuals who spend eCash. Merchants or traders. These are the vendors who receive eCash. Regulators. Authorities or state tax agencies. Once all of the parties are involved, the basic idea of an eCash transaction involves at least one of the components; the issuer, customer, and merchant who will accept the eCash in exchange for the products or services rendered. There are then three general stages for the transaction to be completed. Account Setup The Consumer has to open an account with a bank that provides eCash accounts. The merchant who is willing to participate in eCash transactions must have access to these accounts with a number of banks in order to support the transaction of the consumer who may use any of these various bank accounts. However, the banks will manage both the consumers’ and merchants’ accounts. Purchase Once the consumer decides to purchase a good or service, he or she will transfer the eCash amount from their bank account to either their electronic purse (on-line system) or eCash token (off-line system). The eCash payment will then be transferred to the merchant so that they are compensated for the goods or services provided. The eCash payment will be either a softcopy (via software) or token based. For most transactions through the Internet, the process will be encrypted. Authentication After receiving the electronic payment from the consumer, the merchant will receive a confirmation from the bank. The bank will then authenticate the electronic transaction. During this same step, the bank will debit the consumer’s account for the amount that was agreed upon. Finally, the merchant delivers the products or services and will inform the bank to deposit the payment into their bank account. Although these stages may sound complicated if you’re new to eCash, digital cash actually acts very similarly to physical cash. The obvious difference is that electronic is digital. Here’s an example of how an eCash system would work: A bank creates a unique digital bank note that includes a message which issues a serial number (with a primary or public key) and value of the note. This is sent to Person A. Whenever Person A withdraws this note, it will use Chaum’s Cryptographic technique. This will alter the serial number. As a result, the bank will not recognize the note when it is withdrawn. The note will be returned to the bank with a new serial number. Person A will then pay Person B electronically by sending the bank note to him or her. Person B will check the note’s validity by decrypting it through the bank’s public key to check its signature, a.k.a. the new serial numbers validity. Person B ships the note off to the bank, which checks the serial number to confirm that this specific bank note has never been spent before. The serial number, which is different from the note number that was withdrawn by Person A, will prevent the bank from linking the two transactions. The final phase includes the enabling bank checking the new serialized key account for the amount of the transaction. If validated, the amount will be transferred via a depository notice. Person B, who is using the same encrypting technique, will return the depository notice with the new serialize account. Again, the enabling bank will be aware of who the merchant is. The bank will only know that that money is available and can be used as a payment. In other words, think of this eCash transaction as a debit card transaction except that there is no other information besides the amount of the transaction, making the process secure. WHAT IS CRYPTOCURRENCY AND HOW IS IT OBTAINED? You simply can’t have a discussion involving eCash and not mention cryptocurrency. Ever since Bitcoin launched in 2009, the cryptocurrency has captured the minds of lawmakers, financial institutions, and the general public as a whole. But, what exactly is cryptocurrency and how can it be obtained. Cryptocurrency Explained In it’s simplest form, cryptocurrency is a digital or virtual currency that uses cryptography for security purposes to prevent counterfeit. Cryptography, for those who are unaware, means the science of coding and decoding messages so that they remain secure. During the coding process, a key is used which is known to only the sender and the recipient. What makes cryptocurrency unique is that it is not issued by any type of authority figure, such as a central bank. Because of this, cryptocurrency is in theory, immune to interference from bodies of government. Another feature that cryptocurrency is known for is that users can remain anonymous. The issue with anonymity is that it can be used for illegal activity like money laundering and tax evasion. In most cases, cryptocurrency works simply when two parties transfer funds between each other. Since this involves cryptography, either a public or private keys like an RSA signature must be used to complete the transaction. Each transaction is recorded on a public ledger, also called either a distributed ledger or a blockchain, that is visible to anyone in the network. Personal information is not shared, though. Besides security and anonymity, cryptocurrency is appealing to users because there are only minimal processing fees, as opposed to the expensive fees that most banks and financial institutions charge for transfers. The major concern involving cryptocurrency is that because it’s a virtual or digital currency, an individual’s balance can be erased if there is a security breach or computer crash. In most instances, however, this information can be easily backed-up on the cloud. Finally, the price of cryptocurrencies is that the value can fluctuate sporadically. A Quick Word Regarding Bitcoin While the idea behind cryptocurrency existed years before, cryptocurrency came to the forefront in 2009 when Bitcoin was released. Bitcoin was created by a computer programmer going by the pseudonym Satoshi Nakamoto. Bitcoin is an open-source, peer-to-peer digital currency that is completely decentralized. Today, Bitcoin is accepted by more than 6,000 companies that include Overstock and Virgin Galactic. As explained by the Congressional Research Service, “Like the U.S. dollar, the Bitcoin has no intrinsic value in that it is not redeemable for some amount of another commodity, such as an ounce of gold. Unlike a dollar, a Bitcoin has no physical form, is not legal tender, and is not backed by any government or any other legal entity, and its supply is not determined by a central bank.” (In part of this Congressional Research Service report it states that the dollar is a legal currency, yet doesn’t specifically say the Bitcoin isn’t legal, it just eludes that it isn’t traceable, and therefore a concern to governments.) Through cryptographic techniques “special users on the bitcoin network, known as miners, to gather together blocks of new transactions and compete to verify that the transactions are valid—that the buyer has the amount of Bitcoin being spent and has transferred that amount to the seller’s account. For providing this service, miners that successfully verify a block of transactions are rewarded by the network’s controlling computer algorithm with 25 newly created Bitcoins.” How to Obtain Cryptocurrency Whether it’s Bitcoin or one of the hundreds of alternatives on the crypto-current market, (called Altcoins, meaning an alternate cryptocurrencies – which basically means an alternative to Bitcoin) you must first download the free and open-source software. After that, there are two basic ways to obtain cryptocurrencies, according to Forbes; “mine them using a powerful computer and buy them through a crypto exchange.” Mining Bitcoins and Altcoins, as described in PCWorld, “involves writing a short script to run in the command prompt. It’s only a few steps, which you must follow exactly to ensure success.” However, this can put a lot of stress on your computer because it must “solve complex problems that keep the respective cryptocurrency’s peer-to-peer infrastructure secure.” In exchange for their work, miners are given pieces of Bitcoins. If you prefer to purchase Bitcoins or Altcoins, you can only do so through select and limited markets. This includes currencies on major exchanges like VaultofSatoshi, Kraken, Coinex, and BTC-e. What makes cryptocurrencies like Bitcoin interesting is that they can be used as an investment tool and a transactional platform. PROPERTIES OF ECASH For electronic payments to be as effective and efficient as paper and coin currency, electronic payments should include the following properties: Security One of the main concerns surrounding eCash is how secure it is. When the determined amount is being transferred between consumers, merchants, and banks the prevention of any unauthorized individuals like hackers intercepting, or even changing, the content of the messages, such as the dollar amount, should be addressed. This is commonly addressed through encryption and special serial numbers that give the bank the power to verify the authenticity of the transaction. Besides online security, physical security should be taken into account. For example, if a hard drive crashes or a smart card is stolen, the eCash could also be lost. Thanks to advances in technology, eCash can be stored on secure cloud databases so that it can be easily recovered. Privacy Privacy, in regards to eCash, is the anonymity of the consumers who have made the payment. As with coins and paper notes, the payee should not be able to be linked or be traced during transactions. Privacy is important because consumers’ privacy should be protected from being monitored by financial surveillance. Anonymity, however, does present a number of concerns like counterfeiting, money laundering, and blackmailing in extreme circumstances. Keep in mind that the more anonymity that is offered the less security there will be. Portability One of the benefits of electronic cash is that it’s portable and can be taken with you no matter where you are in the world. In fact, the portability of eCash could replace traditional wallets since it can be stored on your smartphone on in the cloud. Transferability Another advantage of eCash is that it can be transferred from the payee to the payer without being referred to a bank. The ability to transfer between parties should be easy and convenient, just as with traditional paper and coins. Parties should also be able to exchange funds electronically to each other no matter where they are in the world. Divisibility When discussing divisibility, eCash denominations should be able to be divided into small amounts. This makes smaller transactions possible between parties. Arguably on the main challenges for divisible systems having the ability to divide the value into smaller amounts that will eventually be equal to the original value. Previously, divisibility systems were solved by Eng, and Okamoto’s scheme, Okamoto’s scheme and Okamoto and Ohta’s scheme. More recently, International Association for Cryptologic Research shared a system by Patrick Märtens that is based on bounded accumulators and “a new technique to prove that several revealed values are inside an accumulator.” As a whole, eCash payments do not just have to contain the features listed above. To truly replace traditional money transfers, electronic payments have to be more convenient, easier-to-use, and ubiquitous – meaning that eCash networks must work with each other. ECASH SYSTEMS It’s common practice for eCash systems like PayPal, eCash, WebMoney, and Payoneer to sell their electronic currency directly to the end user. However, it’s not uncommon for other systems to sell their currency through third-party digital currency exchangers. For example, the M-Pesa system transfers money via mobile devices in third world countries like Africa, India, Afghanistan, and Eastern Europe. In some situations, community currencies, such as local exchange trading systems (LETS) and the Community Exchange System, work with electronic transactions. In the above examples, these systems are known as centralized systems where the user’s real identity is still known. This has raised privacy concerns over centralized systems, however, it has also been argued that being able to identify users is a benefit if they need to be contacted or identified. Decentralized Systems You can’t talk about decentralized systems without discussing how cryptocurrencies play a part in these systems. Cryptocurrencies, as noted previously, are not regulated by any governing body that can verify the peer-to-peer transaction, which occurs anonymously. Because these systems are decentralized, the value of the currency can fluctuate quickly and often. Besides Bitcoin, are here some other examples of cryptocurrencies that use decentralized systems: Monero launched in 2014 and “is built on principles of privacy, decentralization, and scalability.” Litecoin was founded in 2011, Litecoin is “a peer-to-peer Internet currency that enables instant, near-zero cost payments to anyone in the world.” Dogecoin is an open-source peer-to-peer currency that allows you to easily send money online. Peercoin claims that it’s more energy efficient and the world’s first proof-of-stake coin that was created in 2012. Primecoin is an innovative cryptocurrency that uses as “unique form of proof-of-work based on prime numbers.” Ripple doesn’t rely on the Bitcoin code and focuses on improving cross-border payment offerings. Nxt also uses its own code that was developed from scratch. Contactless Payment Systems These are credit cards, debit cards, smart cards, or mobile devices that rely on radio-frequency identification (RFID) or near field communication (NFC) to make secure transactions that do not require signature or PIN verification. The most common examples are contactless payment systems are mobile subsystems and digital wallets. Examples include: The ‘electronic purse’ that was introduced by Mondex and National Westminster Bank in 1994. The payment system called Mobipay that was implemented by Telefónica and BBVA Bank in Spain in 2005. Venmo originally launched as a mobile payment system through SMS in 2010. It became a social app where friends could pay for small purchases like a cup of coffee. Google Wallet, which launched on September 19, 2011, allows users to store all of their credit card and debit card online. Easytrip was initiated in 2012 in Ireland as a way to pay road tolls. The tolls were charged to the user’s mobile phone account or prepaid credit. The O2 Wallet was introduced in 2012 and could be loaded with regular bank accounts or cards. The service shut down in 2014. In October 2014 Apple Pay was released and is similar to Google Wallet, except it’s exclusive to iPhone users. Samsung Pay debuted in 2015 to rival Apple Pay. It has similar features but is available for Samsung devices. GNU Taler is an anonymous and open source electronic payment system that will be available to the public in 2016. THE BENEFITS OF ECASH The greatest benefit with eCash is that allows individuals to make financial transactions online in real-time. Because financial information is stored electronically, consumers no longer have to carry cash, only mobile devices or smart cards to complete a transaction. eCash also gives merchants more opportunities to partake in commerce. Those are a just a few of the benefits of eCash. Here’s a closer look at the advantages that users and merchants can enjoy. Users Instead of waiting for a bank to approve a transaction, such as for a check to clear, users can send and exchange funds instantly without ever having to step inside of a bank. In fact, you can use electronic payment systems anywhere in the world, as long as you can get online. Furthermore, eCash prevents consumers from having to pay withdrawal fees that are commonly by banks whenever you visit the ATM or the interest rates that incur with credit cards. In fact, people can exchange money directly to each other without the involvement of a third party. Merchants Merchants also have a lot to gain by embracing eCash systems. For starters, these systems can become a marketing tool for their eCommerce business. When a merchant uses a payment system, whether it’s PayPal, Apple Pay, or Primecoin, the consumer can feel secure in making a purchase of the site since the online marketplace uses a trusted payment system. Some payment systems also provide merchants with coupons to help entice consumers. Another perk is that the fees charged by eCash payment systems are usually lower than what credit card companies charge. eCash also gives merchants from anywhere in the world to partake in the global marketplace. For example, an online merchant in India can sell their products to anyone in the world and accept payments with just one-click of a button. Family members in Uganda can exchange funds between each other, even if none of them have a traditional bank account. Finally, both merchants and customers can enjoy the security, and if needed the anonymity, that eCash provides. Since each transaction still needs to be verified, the chances of fraud are greatly reduced. International Exchange This was touched upon earlier, but one of the greatest advantages of eCash is that it’s going to increase the opportunities for international exchange. No matter where you live in the world, you can sell your product to international consumers and receive a payment in real-time. For example, you could be a record shop in Germany that sells a $20 vinyl to a customer in Australia or a clothing manufacturer in America who sells products to customers in Brazil for $15 a shirt. Not only are the fees cheaper, it makes it easier to sell items to a global marketplace by using a fast, secure, and convenient eCash system. DISADVANTAGES OF ECASH While electronic payment systems have been improving their security features, this is one area that remains a concern for users and merchants. Despite needing to verify transactions, fraud is still a common occurrence, thanks to hackers. For example, a hacker can find their way into the bank accounts of unsuspecting victims which could lead to instances of identity theft or having your funds stripped away. Hackers could also attempt to counterfeit the money by recreating the eCash form. Additionally, there is a concern that eCash can become easily available to criminal and terrorist groups if they use a decentralized system. This makes it harder for governments to track these types of organizations since it’s more difficult to find a paper trail. eCash also makes it more challenging to monitor and collect both income and taxes, so it’s possible for people to easily transfer funds and hide assets in offshore accounts. One of the troubling limitations of eCash is that while it has the chance to be used by low-income individuals or those in undeveloped countries, it will be an uphill battle for these groups to use an eCash system since a computer, mobile device, and internet connection are required for eCash transactions. Until this problem is addressed, which is an area that organizations like the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation are working on, not everyone can enjoy the benefits of eCash. Finally, there are concerns about what happens when you can’t access your funds, such as during a power failure. Or, what happens when your records or coins are lost because of a security breach. These are rare occurrences and have been considered as more and more information is stored in the cloud. ECASH REGULATIONS In 1996, Patrick G. Goshtigian discussed the regulations of eCash in a paper published at the Anderson Graduate School of Management at UCLA. In regards to security, Goshtigian stated; “The legal challenges of E-cash entail concerns over taxes and currency issuers. In addition, consumer liability from bank cards will also have to be addressed (currently $50 for credit cards). E-cash removes the intermediary from currency transactions, but this also removes much of the regulation of the currency in the current system. Tax questions immediately arise as to how to prevent tax evasion at the income or consumption level. If cash-like transactions become easier and less costly, monitoring this potential underground economy may be extremely difficult, if not impossible, for the IRS. The more daunting legal problem is controlling a potential explosion of private currencies. Large institutions that are handling many transactions may issue electronic money in their own currency. The currency would not be backed by the full faith of the United States, but by the full faith of the institution. This is not a problem with paper currency, but until the legal system catches up with the digital world, it may present a problem with cybercash.” For over twenty years we are still facing numerous legal questions surrounding eCash since it not only can cross borders but also because it’s difficult to track. These issues, especially the governmental oversight of currencies, will continue to be an issue with eCash use. To have a better understanding of the laws and regulations regarding eCash, here are how several different countries are handling cryptocurrencies like Bitcoin: The United States Bitcoin is legal in the United States and was classified as a convertible decentralized virtual currency by the U.S. Treasury in 2013. In 2015, the Commodity Futures Trading Commission, CFTC, started to classify Bitcoins as a commodity. Currently, New York state is the only state to have granted a license to a Bitcoin exchange in 2015. The company, itBit, now has a bank-like status in the U.S. Canada According to the Library of Congress, “Canada does not have a specific law or regulation that regulates bitcoins.” However, Bitcoin is not considered legal tender in Canada and has been briefly mentioned during anti-money laundering and anti-terrorist financing regulations for virtual currencies. Germany Germany considers Bitcoins like foreign currency. While not recognized as legal tender, Bitcoins “are units of value that have the function of private means of payment within private trading exchanges, or they are substitute currencies that are used as a means of payment in multilateral trading transactions on the basis of legal agreements of private law. ” The United Kingdom While Bitcoins are not regulated in the UK, it’s been reported that “Her Majesty’s Revenue and Customs has classed bitcoins as “single purpose vouchers,” rendering any sales of them liable to a value-added tax of 10–20%.” Japan As of this writing, Japan has no laws regarding the use of Bitcoins. Haruhiko Kuroda, the governor of the Bank of Japan (BOJ), has said that the BOJ was “researching issues of bitcoins, but I have nothing to say regarding bitcoins at the moment.” China China is one of the few countries in the world where Bitcoins are essentially illegal. In fact, the country announced the “Notice on Precautions Against the Risks of Bitcoins,” in 2013 stating that it prohibits banking and payment institutions from dealing in Bitcoins. India While there doesn’t appear to be any legal framework that regulates, restricts, or bans the use of Bitcoins in India, the country’s banking institutions have warned customers about the potential hazards that Bitcoin can present. This was most evident with the 2013 release of the Reserve Bank of India’s public notice. Russia Bitcoin is currently in dispute in Russia. In 2014, Legislation was introduced by the Ministry of Finance that would view Bitcoin transactions as a misdemeanor and would impose fines for dealing with cyber currencies and monetary surrogates. Brazil As noted by the Library of Congress, “On October 9, 2013, Brazil enacted Law No. 12,865, which created the possibility for the normalization of mobile payment systems and the creation of electronic currencies, including the Bitcoin. The Law provides, among other things, for the payment arrangements and payment institutions that comprise the Brazilian Payment System.” Overall, most central banks across the world are cautioning individuals from using virtual currencies like Bitcoin. In most cases though, most authorities are allowing citizens to use virtual currencies, even though they’re not accepted as legal tender. THE FUTURE OF ECASH Jerry Kuch, Yacov Yacobi, and Paul England, cryptography researchers at Microsoft, proclaimed that eCash will be the future of money. According to these researchers “we’ll carry little cards with computer chips called e-wallets and exchange encrypted bits of information for things we need.” They also predicted that we’ll be able to: Make one-click micro-payments online. Have anonymous payments online. Use non-traditional devices like a smartphone to make payments. Does any of this sound familiar? It should. Because those predictions have already come to fruition to make this an exciting time for electronic payments. But, where are we headed next? Dan Schutzer, Senior Technology Consultant, BITS, believes that the future of digital cash could go in four different directions: Digital cash would be replaced by an alternative, such as a pre-paid or debit card, or a new start-up payment processor that meets the security and privacy needs of customers. Digital cash will continue to grow and may even get embraced by governments and banks. This could already be in happening. In 2012 the MintChip was introduced by the Royal Canadian Mint. The chip was attached to SD cards and contained a private key that was signed by the mint. Digital cash will only exist in niche markets, similar to how PayPal started because it was the preferred payment gateway for eBay users. Bitcoin and other blockchain alternatives will be replaced by improved financial platforms. For the purpose of this guide, this is where we expect eCash will bring to the future of the payments industry. Bitcoin Will Be Replaced By the Blockchain One interesting development that has occurred is the work that IBM has contributed to the blockchain that could have serious implications. In March 2012. Reuters reported that IBM was working on a way to create a digital cash and payment system for major currencies. While this would use the blockchain idea, the “transactions would be in an open ledger of a specific country’s currency such as the dollar or euro.” In December 2015, this became a reality when it announced that the Open Ledger Project had been created. This new blockchain was supported by IBM, Intel, JP Morgan, the Linux Foundation, and several big banks. As stated in Fortune, “The Open Ledger Project isn’t proposing another cryptocurrency, but rather it wants to use blockchain technology to create tools to allow businesses to build a distributed ledger for anything they can dream up–from exchanging automotive titles in seconds to paying retail suppliers when a sale is made.” Because this new ledger is connected and distributed, the changes that have been made in the database will be easy to track, as well as be more difficult to forge. Currently, Honduras is using this technology to keep tabs on land titles and musicians are able to let fans pay them directly for their music. There won’t be just one blockchain. There were be several versions that could bring an end to Bitcoin, primarily because these specific blockchains will be more exclusive. Unlike Bitcoin, which basically allows anyone in, the blockchain will be a part of a limited community. Besides the Open Ledger Project, there are a number of innovative companies embracing the blockchain. Bitwage uses the blockchain to make international payroll cheaper. Voatz is aiming to make elections cheaper and more transparent through smartphones and the blockchain. And, Chronicled has merged RFID tags with the Blockchain in order to validate luxury goods which will curb counterfeit items. Mobile Payments Will Go Mainstream This shouldn’t come as a surprise. With more than 6 billion in the world having access to a mobile device, and that figure expected to grow, electronic payments via mobile devices will become more common. This will be accomplished with near-field communication. With NFC chips already installed in most mobile devices, the transfer of electronic payments is already taking place. Users simply have to download an app and will be able to transmit banking and payment data when placed near readers. And, unlike debit cards, mobile devices are capable of displaying the payment details in real-time. Mobile devices, however, are only a part of the potential that NFC chips present. NFC chips can be installed in wearable devices, like a watch, wristband, or ring. Instead of using plastic or even pulling out our phones, we’ll be able to tap or swipe or use a wearable device to complete a purchase. On top of NFC chips, the use of proximity beacons will enhance the growth of mobile payments. Companies will be able to target customers based on their location. For example, as a person approaches a store that they are already a customer of, the store will send you a coupon. The customer can then make the purchase through their mobile device and pick-up their item in swift motion. The convenience of making electronic payments with your mobile device isn’t the only benefit. As noted in Forbes, “Ridding ourselves of cash will require new thinking on customer interaction, crime, value, and even cars.” For example, you could take the EZ Pass idea and apply that to drive-throughs at fast food restaurants where payments are collected from a device located on your vehicle. Without cash registers and physical cash, the amount of robberies and pickpockets could be reduced. Governments could track how money is moved in real-time and use that information to solve problems like poverty. Check-out lines and transaction costs will also decrease. Beyond the blockchain, mobile devices, and wearables, we may even experience digital currency exchanges by using biometrics. Companies like Apple and Samsung are already using fingerprints to verify transactions. But, don’t be surprised if someday soon people will have chips implanted in their hands that will contain payment information. That’s not to say that cash will be completely eradicated. There may still always be a need for physical cash, however, digital cash will continue to evolve quickly.          E. XO  NPV TO Object in What Is an E-payment System?        An e-payment system is a way of making transactions or paying for goods and services through an electronic medium, without the use of checks or cash. It’s also called an electronic payment system or online payment system. Read on to learn more. The electronic payment system has grown increasingly over the last decades due to the growing spread of internet-based banking and shopping. As the world advances more with technology development, we can see the rise of electronic payment systems and payment processing devices. As these increase, improve, and provide ever more secure online payment transactions the percentage of check and cash transactions will decrease. Electronic payment methods One of the most popular payment forms online are credit and debit cards. Besides them, there are also alternative payment methods, such as bank transfers, electronic wallets, smart cards or bitcoin wallet (bitcoin is the most popular cryptocurrency). E-payment methods could be classified into two areas, credit payment systems and cash payment systems. 1. Credit Payment System Credit Card — A form of the e-payment system which requires the use of the card issued by a financial institute to the cardholder for making payments online or through an electronic device, without the use of cash. Still, one of the most popular e-payment methods are credit and debit card #payments E-wallet — A form of prepaid account that stores user’s financial data, like debit and credit card information to make an online transaction easier. Smart card — A plastic card with a microprocessor that can be loaded with funds to make transactions; also known as a chip card. 2. Cash Payment System Direct debit — A financial transaction in which the account holder instructs the bank to collect a specific amount of money from his account electronically to pay for goods or services. E-check — A digital version of an old paper check. It’s an electronic transfer of money from a bank account, usually checking account, without the use of the paper check. E-cash is a form of an electronic payment system, where a certain amount of money is stored on a client’s device and made accessible for online transactions. Stored-value card — A card with a certain amount of money that can be used to perform the transaction in the issuer store. A typical example of stored-value cards are gift cards. Pros and cons of using an e-payment system E-payment systems are made to facilitate the acceptance of electronic payments for online transactions. With the growing popularity of online shopping, e-payment systems became a must for online consumers — to make shopping and banking more convenient. It comes with many benefits, such as: Reaching more clients from all over the world, which results in more sales. More effective and efficient transactions — It’s because transactions are made in seconds without wasting customer’s time. It comes with speed and simplicity. Convenience. Customers can pay for items on an e-commerce website at anytime and anywhere. They just need an internet connected device. As simple as that! Lower transaction cost and decreased technology costs. Expenses control for customers, as they can always check their virtual account where they can find the transaction history. Today it’s easy to add payments to a website, so even a non-technical person may implement it in minutes and start processing online payments. Payment gateways and payment providers offer highly effective security and anti-fraud tools to make transactions reliable.  E-commerce, as well as m-commerce, is getting bigger year after year, so having an e-payment system in your online store is a must. It’s simple, fast and convenient, so why not have one? Still, one of the most popular payment methods are credit and debit card payments, but people also choose some alternatives or local payment methods. If you run an online business, find out what your target audience needs and provide the most convenient and relevant e-payment system. ++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++                                                   The Examples NPV concept in Energy Industries                                               E.XO  e- Money and working capital Turn Over  Working capital turnover ratio :   we examine the working capital turnover ratio. The working capital turnover ratio is an activity ratio that measures how many times working capital is used to generate sales, ie revenue, during a specific time period. As such, the ratio is a good indicator of company growth and liquidity and is calculated as follows: Working capital turnover  =  net sales working capital The ratio is sometimes known as the capital turnover ratio, as net sales to working capital, or by the acronym WCTO. Working capital is generally calculated as the company’s current assets less its current liabilities. Current assets include inventory and accounts receivable together with all other assets that will be held for less than 12 months. Current liabilities include accounts payable and payroll as well as any other liabilities, eg taxes, due in under a year. Example Company XYZ’s net sales year-to-date are €189,445, its current assets are €85,361, and its current liabilities are €43,262. Using the above equation, company XYZ’s working capital turnover is: 189,445 85,361  –  43,262 = 4.5 This means that during the period, the company has used (and of course replaced) its working capital 4.5 times to generate sales. Interpretation of results As with the majority of turnover ratios, the results should be interpreted on an industry sector basis to provide an accurate benchmark. However, in general, a high working capital turnover ratio usually indicates that the company is actively generating sales from its working capital, which is a positive indicator of future prospects. If the ratio increases significantly over the years however, or seems excessively high in relation to sector peers, this could indicate that the company is overtrading, ie taking on large orders that it does not have the resources to fulfil, and/or that a high proportion of the business’s assets are fixed assets (ie long-term assets such as buildings and machinery that are not easily converted into cash). Being top-heavy on fixed assets brings the available working capital down and means that the company lacks liquidity. This lack of liquidity could mean that the company would struggle to pay all of its debts. Meanwhile, a low working capital turnover ratio could point to inefficiencies as the company is not generating a significant return on its assets, which can signal financial difficulty. Some companies, particularly those that are going through periods of rapid growth, do however run with negative working capital as they are able to generate cash extremely quickly. This is often the case in the food outlet or restaurant industry as customers pay for the goods up front. If the company’s working capital turnover is negative, this may be a sign of an efficient business strategy, particularly if inventory is tactically low, ie just sufficient to meet demand. A well-known organisation that has operated using this business model is McDonalds. Many companies on the verge of bankruptcy also have negative working capital turnover though, so it is important to make sure that a company with negative working capital turnover has both low inventory and accounts receivable. If the company has high accounts receivable, this may indicate that it is not collecting its debts efficiently and that products have not been paid for up front. This, combined with a low inventory, would mean that the company is owed money and yet has no stock to sell to cover these debts. What is working capital? One of the most common needs for working capital occurs when a business must increase its inventory and accounts receivable in order to grow its customer base and revenues. Let’s first be clear on what the term ‘working capital’ really means. From an accounting standpoint, working capital = current assets – current liabilities. Current assets are short term in nature and can be converted quickly to cash, primarily accounts receivable and inventory. Current liabilities are obligations that come due within one year, primarily accounts payable and short term debt. The term “working capital” is often used incorrectly when talking about the financing needs of a business, especially for a start up business. For example, if a start up business is looking to finance typical operating expenses like an advertising budget and salaries for new employees, what it really needs is “long term capital” or equity. If a business is unable to support the expenses for advertising and salaries then most likely it is under-capitalized. If the company is projecting losses for the first year then most likely “equity” is what is needed, not “working capital.” Money used to fund growth in short term assets like inventory and accounts receivables is correctly considered “working capital” financing.  you need to understand how money flows through your business. In other words, you need to understand your “working capital cycle.” The cycle consists of: How quickly current assets (e.g. accounts receivables & inventory) are turned into cash How quickly that cash is used to pay current liabilities (e.g. accounts payable).  The working capital cycle is also referred to as the “Turnover Rates” for accounts receivables, inventory, and accounts payable. Turnover Rates.  Your business’s historical turnover rates are the first step in forecasting your growing working capital needs. You need to analyze your actual income statement and balance sheet to find out the following information:  How many days of inventory do I keep on hand (called inventory turnover)?  How many days do customers take to pay me (called accounts receivable turnover)? How many days do I take to pay my vendors (accounts payable turnover)?  The chart below shows how to calculate your annual turnover ratios.  Now that you have calculated your turnover rates, you are ready to forecast your working capital needs based on your plan for growth.  This growth will require carrying higher levels of inventory and accounts receivable, which will require additional working capital financing.  But how much is the question.  To do that calculation, you need to have a projected income statement, which includes both projected sales and cost of goods sold figures.  Using these figures and the working capital turnover ratios (see calculations above), you can get an estimate of how much additional working capital is needed to grow your business.  See the example below. Using these projected balances, you can figure out the changes to working capital by simply calculating the difference between your projected and historical balances for accounts receivable, inventory, and accounts payable. So what does this all mean?  Simply, your new working capital needs equals the change in Accounts Receivable plus Inventory minus Accounts Payable. For our example, if you project to grow your sales from $500,000 to $700,000, you will need additional working capital of $21,496.  How to fund additional working capital needs For small businesses who have been in operation and generating profits, you will most likely have reinvested some of the profits back into the business (this is called retained earnings). You reinvest your profits into your inventory, use the profits to carry increased levels of receivables or you use the profits to pay down your trade suppliers.  In essence, the retention of these profits increases the working capital that enables you to grow.  If you did not earn or retain sufficient profits to finance your own growth, however, you need to turn to borrowings for your increased working capital needs.  Generally speaking, small businesses find it difficult to obtain working capital financing from traditional banking sources. As a result, you might be tempted to turn to non-bank lending sources such as factoring, merchant cash advance, and online lenders. You should know that these sources of working capital financing charge annual percentage rates (“APR”) of 50% or more! What are alternative sources of working capital financing? Small business owners needing to finance inventory and accounts receivables may be eligible for financing from community lenders, such as Community Development Financial Institutions (“CDFIs”). CDFIs are nonprofit, private financial institutions that provide affordable lending to small business owners who are not being served by the banking community. Conclusion When growing your small business, you will need to make an additional investment in inventory and accounts receivable.  How much working capital you need can be estimated by creating projections that use your historical “Turnover Rates” for inventory, accounts receivable, and accounts payable as shown in the example above. Working capital is the difference between a company’s current assets and current liabilities. It is a financial measure, which calculates whether a company has enough liquid assets to pay its bills that will be due in a year. When a company has excess current assets, that amount can then be used to spend on its day-to-day operations. Current assets, such as cash and equivalents, inventory, accounts receivable and marketable securities, are resources a company owns that can be used up or converted into cash within a year. Current liabilities are the amount of money a company owes such as accounts payable, short-term loans and accrued expenses, which are due for payment within a year. Positive vs negative working capital Having positive working capital can be a good sign of the short-term financial health for a company because it has enough liquid assets remaining to pay off short-term bills and to internally finance the growth of their business. Without additional working capital, a company may have to borrow additional funds from a bank or turn to investment bankers to raise more money. Negative working capital means assets aren’t being used effectively, and a company may a liquidity crisis. Even if a company has lots invested in fixed assets, it will face financial challenges if liabilities come due too soon. This will lead to more borrowing, late payments to creditors and suppliers and, as a result, a lower corporate credit rating for the company. When negative working capital is ok Depending on the type of business, companies can have negative working capital and still do well. Examples are grocery stores like Walmart or fast-food chains like McDonald’s that can generate cash very quickly due to high inventory turnover rates and by receiving payment from customers in a matter of a few days. These companies need little working capital. Products that are bought from suppliers are immediately sold to customers before the company even gets a chance to pays the vendor or supplier. In contrast, capital-intensive companies that manufacture heavy equipment and machinery usually can’t raise cash quickly, as they sell their products on a long-term payment basis. Since they can’t sell fast enough, cash won’t be available immediately during tough financial times, so having enough working capital is desirable. Adjustments to the working capital formula While the above formula and example are the most standard definition of working capital, there are other more focused definitions. Examples of alternative formulas: Current Assets – Cash – Current Liabilities (excludes cash) Accounts Receivable + Inventory – Accounts Payable (this represents only the “core” accounts that make up working capital in day-to-day operations of the business)  MANAGING WORKING CAPITAL Working capital management has an impact on the liquidity, profitability and financial health of the organization. If the following main components of Working Capital are managed, working capital as a whole can be managed: INVENTORY MANAGEMENT A balanced inventory should be maintained to optimize working capital requirements. Inventory should not remain idle nor should the company lose out on sales / production because it does not have sufficient inventory in hand. cash conversion cycle (CCC)  A higher, or quicker, inventory turnover decreases the cash conversion cycle (CCC). A lower, or slower, inventory turnover increases the CCC. The CCC measures the number of days it takes a company to generate and collect revenue from its inventory assets. Stated differently, the CCC measures the time it takes a company to purchase its inventory and then collect cash from its sales. Cash conversion cycle = days inventory outstanding + days sales outstanding - days payables outstanding A company's inventory turnover affects the CCC in that it is used in the calculation for days inventory outstanding: Days inventory outstanding = average inventory / cost of goods sold per day When a company's inventory turnover is high, meaning it cycles through inventory quickly, it reduces the average inventory, and therefore decreases the days inventory outstanding. When a company's inventory turnover is low, meaning inventory sits on its books for an extended period of time, it increases the average inventory, and therefore increases the days inventory outstanding. When the days inventory outstanding is low, it reduces the CCC. This means a company is able to collect cash from revenues quickly; the business is able to use its working capital in other areas. When the days inventory outstanding is high, it increases the CCC. This means it takes a company longer to collect its cash from revenues, which causes potential cash flow issues to arise when it company needs working capital.  What is a Working Capital Cycle? The Working Capital Cycle for a business is the length of time it takes to convert net working capital (current assets less current liabilities) all into cash.  Businesses typically try to manage this cycle by selling inventory quickly, collecting revenue from customers quickly, and paying bills slowly, to optimize cash flow.  the influence of e-money can change the value of accelerating cash on the turnover of working capital and investment and continuous innovation Steps in the Working Capital Cycle For most companies, the working capital cycle works as follows: The company purchases, on credit, materials to manufacture a product (for example, they have 90 days to pay for the raw materials). The company sells its inventory in 85 days, on average (days payable outstanding) The company receives payment from customers for the products sold in 20 days, on average. In the first step of the process, the company get the materials it needs to produce inventory but doesn’t initially have any cash expense (purchased on credit under accounts payable).  In 90 days’ time, it will have to pay for those materials.  Eighty-five (85) days after buying the materials, the finished goods are sold, but the company doesn’t receive cash for them initially (sold on credit under accounts receivable).  Twenty (20) days after selling the goods, the company receives cash, and the working capital cycle is complete. Working Capital Cycle Formula Based on the above steps, we can see that the working capital cycle formula is: Working Capital Cycle Sample Calculation Now that we know the steps in the cycle and the formula, let’s calculate an example based on the above information. Inventory days = 85 Receivable days = 20 Payable days = 90 Working Capital Cycle = 85 + 20 – 90 = 15 This means the company is only out of pocket of cash for 15 days before receiving full payment. Positive vs Negative Working Capital Cycle In the above example, we saw a business with a positive, or normal, cycle of working capital.  Sometimes, however, businesses enjoy a negative working capital cycle where they collect money faster than they pay off bills. Sticking with the above example, imagine now that the company decides to become a “cash only” business with its customers.  By only accepting cash (no credit cards or payment terms), its accounts receivable days become 0. Let’s use the same formula again and calculate their new cycle time. Inventory days = 85 Receivable days = 0 Payable days = 90 Working Capital Cycle = 85 + 0 – 90 = –5 Now, this means the company receives payment from customers 5 days before it has to pay its suppliers. Financing Growth and Working Capital Businesses with normal/positive cycles often require financing to cover the period of time before they receive payment from customers and clients.  The is especially true for rapidly growing companies, and hence the idea that it’s possible to “grow the company out of money.” To solve this problem, companies often arrange to have financing provided by a bank or other financial institution.  Banks will often lend money against inventory and will also finance accounts receivable. For example, if a bank believes the company is capable of liquidating its inventory at 70 cents on the dollar, it may decide to provide for 50% of the cost of the inventory (to give the bank a buffer in case the inventory has to be liquidated). Additionally, if a company sells products to businesses that have high creditworthiness, the bank may finance those receivables (also called “factoring”) by providing early payment. By combining one or both of the above two banking solutions, a company can reduce the capital required to finance their operations. Working Capital Cycle in Financial Modeling In financial modeling and valuation, one of the key set of assumptions that are made about a company is its accounts receivable days, inventory days, and accounts payable days. When building a financial model, it is important to clearly lay out these assumptions and understand their impact on the business. Operating working capital needs to be kept as low as possible, even down into negative values, in order to improve the cash position. To control the stock level, the purchasing volume needs be fine tuned to the latest sales trend and forecast. When you’re working on reducing the capital locked up in inventory, start by keeping inventory on hand levels low and ordering just-in-time inventory to meet your customer demands. Ideally your customers should be paying you before you need to pay your suppliers. The advantages are obvious: When your working capital is negative, you do not need to tap into your bank account when procuring inventory. As long as you’ve not paid your suppliers for the inventory on hand, you can cash in when it’s sold to the customer. Finally, you only pay the supplier only after you receive the cash from the customer. This way, you would receive a cash benefit from the supplier and have a positive cash balance. In this scenario, a growing business would not feel the strain of pre-financing a larger inventory level, as the inventory would be pre-financed by the suppliers. To unlock capital tied up in your inventory, you need: Supplier payment terms that are longer than the payment terms of the customer Inventory turnover that is faster than the payment term difference An effective way to control your inventory levels is to introduce maximum stock levels that keep the working capital low or even negative while balancing the benefits of lower cash-out with the potential reduction of some supplier discounts. Reducing Stock Levels Inventory management plays an important role in reducing working capital, as the goal is to sell out the inventory to the minimum stock level before the supplier needs to be paid. However, you also need to be careful of overselling, as this can cause you to end up in an out of stock situation. With an inventory management solution like TradeGecko, you’ll have access to sales intelligence reports that can help you decide on the optimal inventory levels for your product based on your sales history. Once you’ve set your optimal stock levels after taking customer demand and safety stock into account, the next step is to calculate your reorder points to ensure you’ll always have enough stock on hand for your customers. There is always the temptation for wholesalers to increase their order sizes for a supplier discount or rebate, which is why it’s important to set maximum stock levels for your products. To measure the benefits of the available cash, you have to look at your financing situation. Let’s assume that you have a company loan of $1 million. If you can reduce the stock level on average by $100,000, you can reduce the loan to $900,000. That way, you save the interest rate on the $100,000 as you do not need to finance the stock. If you keep the loan at $1 million or have no loan at all, you have just increased your cash position by $100,000. You can now use this money to invest in other opportunities for growing your business that will earn you more profit. In case you have an attractive investment opportunity but financing resources are used to the limit, you can look into freeing up cash from careful stock management to finance these investments. However, if you choose to maintain high inventory levels, you’ll face the opportunity costs of losing out on these growth opportunities. At the same time, additional side effects may complicate the assessment. For example, reducing the order size may result in higher handling costs even as it reduces the warehouse costs. As a business owner, you need to evaluate your specific business case and make sure the benefits outweigh the additional costs when deciding. Reducing Order Size Some suppliers require a minimum order quantity and this quantity could already be more than needed. In this case, you should start negotiating better terms to improve your cash flow management. When faced with a minimum order quantity, try to negotiate longer payment terms for this specific order or splitting payments in line with the expected sales of the product. A side note on negative working capital Negative working capital has many benefits to a business in stable times and times of growth, but it can become a risk when customer demand is shrinking. If sales are declining dramatically and aren’t anticipated in a reduced order size, you will face an increase in working capital and an increase to your expenses. At the same time, slow sales also result in a cash drain, leaving a business stuck with little available cash due to capital locked up in stock. For a B2B business, the absolute amount of working capital can be huge and the potential outflow of cash, significant. So as a business owner, you need to be prepared for this risk and have alternative financing options ready to minimize the impact to your business. Conclusion It is essential to manage your stock level according to your individual sales cycle and financing capabilities. If you place large orders to cash-in supplier discounts it might not be to your overall advantage. The best starting point is to find out the stock level that really supports your business at minimal cash out. Only afterwards you might consider extending an order and receive a supplier discount, because now you are aware of the extra cash required to get this discount. With this preparation you are in the position to reduce the working capital and improve your cash flow. That way, you can put yourself in a better position to control your spending - get discounts or expand the business.         F. XO  cash money rotation system in micro finance  Resources, events, agents (accounting model) Resources, events, agents (REA) is a model of how an accounting system can be re-engineered for the computer age. REA was originally proposed in 1982 by William E. McCarthy as a generalized accounting model, and contained the concepts of resources, events and agents (McCarthy 1982). REA is a popular model in teaching accounting information systems (AIS), but it is rare in business practice. Most companies cannot easily dismantle their legacy data warehouse systems or are unwilling to do so. Workday, Inc., IBM Scalable Architecture for Financial Reporting, REATechnology, and ISO 15944-4 are exceptions.[1] Fallon and Polovina (2013) have however shown how REA can also add value when modelling current ERP business processes by providing a tool which increases the understanding of the implementation and underlying data model. The REA model gets rid of many accounting objects that are not necessary in the computer age. Most visible of these are debits and credits—double-entry bookkeeping disappears in an REA system. Many general ledger accounts also disappear, at least as persistent objects; e.g., accounts receivable or accounts payable. The computer can generate these accounts in real time using source document records. REA treats the accounting system as a virtual representation of the actual business. In other words, it creates computer objects that directly represent real-world-business objects. In computer science terms, REA is an ontology. The real objects included in the REA model are: goods, services or money, i.e., resources business transactions or agreements that affect resources, i.e., events people or other human agencies (other companies, etc.), i.e., agents These objects contrast with conventional accounting terms such as asset or liability, which are less directly tied to real-world objects. For example, a conventional accounting asset such as goodwill is not an REA resource. There is a separate REA model for each business process in the company. A business process roughly corresponds to a functional department, or a function in Michael Porter's value chain. Examples of business processes would be sales, purchases, conversion or manufacturing, human resources, and financing. At the heart of each REA model there is usually a pair of events, linked by an exchange relationship, typically referred to as the "duality" relation. One of these events usually represents a resource being given away or lost, while the other represents a resource being received or gained. For example, in the sales process, one event would be "sales"—where goods are given up—and the other would be "cash receipt", where cash is received. These two events are linked; a cash receipt occurs in exchange for a sale, and vice versa. The duality relationship can be more complex, e.g., in the manufacturing process, it would often involve more than two events (see Dunn et al. [2004] for examples). REA systems have usually been modeled as relational databases with entity-relationship diagrams, though this is not compulsory. The philosophy of REA draws on the idea of reusable Design Patterns, though REA patterns are used to describe databases rather than object oriented programs, and are quite different from the 23 canonical patterns in the original designs pattern book by Gamma et al. Research in REA emphasizes patterns (e.g., Hruby et al. 2006). Here is an example of the basic REA pattern shown as an E-R diagram: The pattern is extended to encompass commitments (promises to engage in transactions, e.g., a sales order), policies, and other constructs. Dunn et al. (2004) provide a good overview at an undergraduate level (for accounting majors), while Hruby et al. (2006) is an advanced reference for computer scientists. Here is a diagram of an extended REA pattern (from Hruby et al. 2006) REA is a continuing influence on the electronic commerce standard ebXML, with W. McCarthy actively involved in the standards committee. The competing XBRL GL standard however is at odds with the REA concept, as it closely mimics double-entry book-keeping. REA is now recognised by The Open Group (OG) within the TOGAF® standard (an industry standard enterprise framework), as one of the modelling tools which is useful for modelling business processes.                                         The model Money Creation  We consider a closed economy that is composed of  N agents, one central bank and one commercial bank. The central bank is in charge of determining the amount of money base and the required reserve ratio. Agents are endowed with a certain amount of money at the very beginning of the model and then trade with each other randomly. The commercial bank provides depositing services to savers and lending services to borrowers. The economy is considered to be in an insufficient demand situation where extra supply of goods can be realized as long as there is extra demand.                                                                  Money Creation         money creation and money circulation in a credit economy. Our special attention is paid to the role of debt in the two processes. With the agent-based modeling approach, macro phenomena are well founded in micro-based causalities. A hypothetical economy composed of a banking system and multiple traders is proposed. Instead of being a pure financial intermediary, the banking system is viewed as the center of money creation and an accelerator of money circulation. Agents finance their expenditures not only by their own savings but also through bank loans. Through mathematical calculations and numerical simulation, we identify the determinants of money multiplier and those of velocity of money. In contrast to the traditional money creation model, the money multiplier is determined not only by the behavior of borrowing but also by the behavior of repayment as well. The velocity of money is found to be influenced by both money-related factors such as the expenditure habits of agents with respect to their income and wealth and debt-related factors such as borrowing and repayment behaviors of debtors and the reserve requirements faced by banks. Theoretical analysis The economic processes described above include two types of interactions: the interaction between agents and the banking system which constitutes the money creation process and the interaction among agents themselves which constitutes the income–expenditure process. Thanks to those debt-related behaviors, these two processes are not independent from each other, but intertwined with complicated feedback loops. For example, the behavior of lending of the banking system does not only changes the stocks of money and debt through the money creation process, but also enables borrowers to make debt-financed expenditure in addition to those financed by their own income or wealth, which then results in changes in the flows of income for others. On the other hand, the behavior of repayment, which is constrained by the income flow for indebted agents in the income–expenditure dynamics among exchanging agents, also affects the money creation process by annihilating money and debt simultaneously. Therefore, when we study the determinants for money multiplier and those for velocity of money circulation, we cannot isolate the two processes. In addition, we should be aware that there exist two different types of equilibrium where the artificial economy eventually falls into: the stock equilibrium where the stocks stop changing and the flow equilibrium where the flows stop changing. When we simulate the model under the initialization and follow the evolution of the stock variables (the money aggregate and the total amount of debt) and the flow variable (aggregate income/expenditure) as shown in Fig. 2 and Fig. 3 respectively, we can find that the stock equilibrium and the flow equilibrium are not reached at the same time. Fig. 2    Fig 3 With this in mind, we next calculate the equilibrium value for the money multiplier and velocity of money by employing the mean-field approximating approach.   The Conclusion   the behavioral foundations of the money creation and money circulation processes with an agent-based model. The role of debt is taken into special consideration, and the banking system is characterized as the center of money creation and the accelerator of money circulation. With the mean-field approximation method, we obtained the theoretical expressions of the money multiplier and the velocity of money and studied the dependence of these two variables on different parameters through computer simulation. As a result, three major conclusions can be drawn from these analyses. First, we found that the expenditure habits of the public determine the extent to which the economy relies on debt. A clear phase transition between a credit economy and non-credit economy is observed when people vary their propensity to spend. It is also proven that unlike the traditional money creation model, the money multiplier is influenced not only by the borrowing behavior that creates money but also the repayment behavior that destructs money as well. Finally, both money-related and debt-related factors, namely the expenditure habit of agents, the borrowing and repayment behavior of debtors and the monetary policies the banking system is subject to, are found to be the determinants of the velocity of money.                              Money supply Money supply data are recorded and published, usually by the government or the central bank of the country. Public and private sector analysts have long monitored changes in the money supply because of the belief that it affects the price level, inflation, the exchange rate and the business cycle.  The business cycle, also known as the economic cycle or trade cycle, is the downward and upward movement of gross domestic product (GDP) around its long-term growth trend.[1] The length of a business cycle is the period of time containing a single boom and contraction in sequence. These fluctuations typically involve shifts over time between periods of relatively rapid economic growth (expansions or booms), and periods of relative stagnation or decline (contractions or recessions). Business cycles are usually measured by considering the growth rate of real gross domestic product. Despite the often-applied term cycles, these fluctuations in economic activity do not exhibit uniform or predictable periodicity. The common or popular usage boom-and-bust cycle refers to fluctuations in which the expansion is rapid and the contraction severe.  In recent years economic theory has moved towards the study of economic fluctuation rather than a 'business cycle' – though some economists use the phrase 'business cycle' as a convenient shorthand.  The explanation of fluctuations in aggregate economic activity is one of the primary concerns of macroeconomics. The main framework for explaining such fluctuations is Keynesian economics. In the Keynesian view, business cycles reflect the possibility that the economy may reach short-run equilibrium at levels below or above full employment. If the economy is operating with less than full employment, i.e., with high unemployment, Keynesian theory states that monetary policy and fiscal policy can have a positive role to play in smoothing the fluctuations of the business cycle. Beside the Keynesian explanation there are a number of alternative theories of business cycles, largely associated with particular schools or theorists in heterodox economics. A common alternative within mainstream economics is real business cycle theory. Nowadays other notable theories are credit-based explanations such as debt deflation and the financial instability hypothesis. The latter two gained interest for being able to explain the subprime mortgage crisis and financial crises.  This theory explains the nature and causes of economic cycles from the viewpoint of life-cycle of marketable goods. The theory originates from the work of Raymond Vernon, who described the development of international trade in terms of product life-cycle – a period of time during which the product circulates in the market. Vernon stated that some countries specialize in the production and export of technologically new products, while others specialize in the production of already known products. The most developed countries are able to invest large amounts of money in the technological innovations and produce new products, thus obtaining a dynamic comparative advantage over developing countries. Recent research by Georgiy Revyakin proves initial Vernon theory and shows that economic cycles in developed countries overrun economic cycles in developing countries.[29] He also presumes that economic cycles with different periodicity can be compared to the products with various life-cycles. In case of Kondratiev waves such products correlate with fundamental discoveries implemented in production (inventions which form the technological paradigm: Richard Arkwright's machines, steam engines, industrial use of electricity, computer invention, etc.); Kuznets cycles describe such products as infrastructural components (roadways, transport, utilities, etc.); Juglar cycles may go in parallel with enterprise fixed capital (equipment, machinery, etc.), and Kitchin cycles are characterized by change in the society preferences (tastes) for consumer goods, and time, which is necessary to start the production. Simultaneous technological updates by all economic agents (as a result, cycle formation) would be determined by highly competitive market conditions: in case if a manufacturing technology at an enterprise does not meet the current technological environment, – such company loses its competitiveness and eventually goes bankrupt. If we consider two consumption paths, each with the same trend and the same initial level of consumption – and as a result same level of consumption per period on average – but with different levels of volatility, then, according to economic theory, the less volatile consumption path will be preferred to the more volatile one. This is due to risk aversion on part of individual agents. One way to calculate how costly this greater volatility is in terms of individual (or, under some restrictive conditions, social) welfare is to ask what percentage of her annual average consumption would an individual be willing to sacrifice in order to eliminate this volatility entirely. Another way to express this is by asking how much an individual with a smooth consumption path would have to be compensated in terms of average consumption in order to accept the volatile path instead of the one without the volatility. The resulting amount of compensation, expressed as a percentage of average annual consumption, is the cost of the fluctuations calculated by Lucas. It is a function of people's degree of risk aversion and of the magnitude of the fluctuations which are to be eliminated, as measured by the standard deviation of the natural log of consumption. Lucas' formula Robert Lucas' baseline formula for the welfare cost of business cycles is given by (see mathematical derivation below): {\displaystyle \lambda ={\frac {1}{2}}\sigma ^{2}\theta } where  {\displaystyle \lambda } is the cost of fluctuations (the % of average annual consumption that a person would be willing to pay to eliminate all fluctuations in her consumption),  {\displaystyle \sigma } is the standard deviation of the natural log of consumption and  {\displaystyle \theta } measures the degree of relative risk aversion.[6] It is straightforward to measure  {\displaystyle \sigma } from available data. Using US data from between 1947 and 2001 Lucas obtained  {\displaystyle \sigma =.032}. It is a little harder to obtain an empirical estimate of  {\displaystyle \theta }; although it should be theoretically possible, many controversies in economics revolve around the precise and appropriate measurement of this parameter. However it is doubtful that  {\displaystyle \theta } is particularly high (most estimates are no higher than 4). As an illustrative example consider the case of log utility (see below) in which case  {\displaystyle \theta =1}. In this case the welfare cost of fluctuations is {\displaystyle \lambda ={\frac {1}{2}}(.032)^{2}=.0005.} In other words, eliminating all the fluctuations from a person's consumption path (i.e., eliminating the business cycle entirely) is worth only 1/20 of 1 percent of average annual consumption. For example, an individual who consumes $50,000 worth of goods a year on average would be willing to pay only $25 to eliminate consumption fluctuations. The implication is that, if the calculation is correct and appropriate, the ups and downs of the business cycles, the recessions and the booms, hardly matter for individual and possibly social welfare. It is the long run trend of economic growth that is crucial. If  {\displaystyle \theta } is at the upper range of estimates found in literature, around 4, then {\displaystyle \lambda ={\frac {1}{2}}(.032)^{2}4=.002} or 1/5 of 1 percent. An individual with average consumption of $50,000 would be willing to pay $100 to eliminate fluctuations. This is still a very small amount compared to the implications of long run growth on income. One way to get an upper bound on the degree of risk aversion is to use the Ramsey model of intertemporal savings and consumption. In that case, the equilibrium real interest rate is given by {\displaystyle r=\rho +\theta g} where  {\displaystyle r} is the real (after tax) rate of return on capital (the real interest rate),  {\displaystyle \rho } is the subjective rate of time preference (which measures impatience) and  {\displaystyle g} is the annual growth rate of consumption.  {\displaystyle r} is generally estimated to be around 5% (.05) and the annual growth rate of consumption is about 2% (.02). Then the upper bound on the cost of fluctuations occurs when  {\displaystyle \theta } is at its highest, which in this case occurs if  {\displaystyle \rho =0}. This implies that the highest possible degree of risk aversion is {\displaystyle \theta ^{Max}=r/g=.05/.02=2.5} which in turn, combined with estimates given above, yields a cost of fluctuations as {\displaystyle \lambda ={\frac {1}{2}}(.032)^{2}2.5=.0013} which is still extremely small (13% of 1%). Mathematical representation and formula Lucas sets up an infinitely lived representative agent model where total lifetime utility ( {\displaystyle U}) is given by the present discounted value (with  {\displaystyle \beta } representing the discount factor) of per period utilities ( {\displaystyle u(.)}) which in turn depend on consumption in each period ( {\displaystyle c_{t}})[4] {\displaystyle U=\sum _{t=0}^{\infty }\beta ^{t}u(c_{t})} In the case of a certain consumption path, consumption in each period is given by {\displaystyle c_{t}^{cert}=Ae^{gt}} where  {\displaystyle A} is initial consumption and  {\displaystyle g} is the growth rate of consumption (neither of these parameters turns out to matter for costs of fluctuations in the baseline model, so they can be normalized to 1 and 0 respectively). In the case of a volatile, uncertain consumption path, consumption in each period is given by {\displaystyle c_{t}^{vol}=(1+\lambda )Ae^{gt}e^{-{\frac {1}{2}}\sigma ^{2}}\epsilon _{t}} where  {\displaystyle \sigma } is the standard deviation of the natural log of consumption and  {\displaystyle \epsilon } is a random shock which is assumed to be log-normally distributed so that the mean of  {\displaystyle ln(\epsilon _{t})} is zero, which in turn implies that the expected value of  {\displaystyle e^{-{\frac {1}{2}}\sigma ^{2}}\epsilon _{t}} is 1 (i.e., on average, volatile consumption is same as certain consumption). In this case  {\displaystyle \lambda } is the "compensation parameter" which measures the percentage by which average consumption has to be increased for the consumer to be indifferent between the certain path of consumption and the volatile one.  {\displaystyle \lambda } is the cost of fluctuations. We find this cost of fluctuations by setting {\displaystyle \sum _{t=0}^{\infty }\beta ^{t}u(c_{t}^{cert})=\sum _{t=0}^{\infty }\beta ^{t}u(c_{t}^{vol})} and solving for  {\displaystyle \lambda } For the case of isoelastic utility, given by {\displaystyle u(c_{t})={\frac {c_{t}^{1-\theta }-1}{1-\theta }}} we can obtain an (approximate) closed form solution which has already been given above {\displaystyle \lambda ={\frac {1}{2}}\sigma ^{2}\theta } A special case of the above formula occurs if utility is logarithmic,  {\displaystyle u(c_{t})=ln(c_{t})} which corresponds to the case of  {\displaystyle \theta =1}, which means that the above simplifies to  {\displaystyle \lambda =.5\sigma ^{2}}. In other words, with log utility the cost of fluctuations is equal to one half the variance of the natural logarithm of consumption.[6] An alternative, more accurate solution gives losses that are somewhat larger, especially when volatility is large.[7] Risk aversion and the equity premium puzzle However, a major problem related to the above way of estimating  {\displaystyle \theta } (hence  {\displaystyle \lambda }) and in fact, possibly to Lucas' entire approach is the so-called equity premium puzzle, first observed by Mehra and Prescott in 1985.[8] The analysis above implies that since macroeconomic risk is unimportant, the premium associated with systematic risk, that is, risk in returns to an asset that is correlated with aggregate consumption should be small (less than 0.5 percentage points for the values of risk aversion considered above). In fact the premium has averaged around six percentage points. In a survey of the implications of the equity premium, Simon Grant and John Quiggin note that 'A high cost of risk means that recessions are extremely destructive'.[9] Evidence from effects on subjective wellbeing Justin Wolfers has shown that macroeconomic volatility reduces subjective wellbeing; the effects are somewhat larger than expected under the Lucas approach. According to Wolfers, 'eliminating unemployment volatility would raise well-being by an amount roughly equal to that from lowering the average level of unemployment by a quarter of a percentage point                   G.XO.   e- Cash and e- Money on  Send and receive money instantly    All of our payment acceptance methods are quick, we aim to get our customers their hard earned money as quickly as possible. The quickest is our Digital Wallet which allows you to instantly pay and get paid using Due Cash. Ideal for individuals and even freelancers, this new payment method is gaining in popularity, especially with the ability to use your mobile device to handle these transactions. From splitting a bill to getting reimbursed for expenses, our digital wallet is designed to simplify and speed up all your transactions.  keep every part of every transaction e- money and e- cash on e- Key Pass : PCI compliance Encrypted transactions Fraud monitoring and alert tools Proprietary security features built using blockchain Ongoing and automatic security technology upgrades to our payments platform  multiple digital payment options for online and mobile environments that include: Credit and Debit Card Processing Power your business with seamless credit and debit card processing. Our low-cost and highly secure processing solution is guaranteed to save your business valuable time and money. Whether you're sending invoices to clients or looking to integrate Due Payments with your online store, we've got you covered! International Payment Processing Don't sell yourself short by excluding international markets. If your business is located internationally you can now process with us through our integrated partners. We now support over 25 countries and counting. Come transform your business with our all-inclusive payments platform! eCheck and ACH Payments This digital payment solution will completely transform your business. Now, transactions can be made over the internet, email, or personal computer to another workstation-securely and anonymously. With rates much lower that credit and cards, these transactions are great for larger B2B payments. No more tracking paper invoices and checks through archaic accounting systems, Coming Soon! Digital Wallet As we move closer towards a digital economy, the need for a highly secure digital wallet is increasing. With our digital wallet, you'll be able to send and receive payments in real time using Due Cash. Feel free to send money anywhere in the world as our wallet works great in a global environment! Coming Soon!                                     H. XO    working capital impact cash flow    Working capital represents the difference between a firm’s current assets and current liabilities. Working capital, also called net working capital, is the amount of money a company has available to pay its short-term expenses. Positive working capital is when a company has more current assets than current liabilities, meaning the company can fully cover its short-term liabilities as they come due in the next 12 months. Positive working capital is a sign of financial strength. However, having an excessive amount of working capital for a long time might indicate the company is not managing their assets effectively. Negative working capital is when the current liabilities exceed the current assets, and the working capital is negative. Working capital could be temporarily negative if the company had a large cash outlay as a result of a large purchase of products and services from its vendors. However, if the working capital is negative for an extended period of time, it may be a cause of concern for certain types of companies, indicating that they are struggling to make ends meet and have to rely on borrowing or stock issuances to finance their working capital. Understanding Cash Flow Cash Flow is the net amount of cash and cash-equivalents being transferred in and out of a company.  Positive cash flow indicates that a company's liquid assets are increasing, enabling it to settle debts, reinvest in its business, return money to shareholders, pay expenses and provide a buffer against future financial challenges. Negative cash flow can occur if operating activities don't generate enough cash to stay liquid. This can happen if profits are tied up in accounts receivable and inventory, or if a company spends too much on capital expenditures. Understanding the cash flow statement – which reports operating cash flow, investing cash flow, and financing cash flow – is essential for assessing a company’s liquidity, flexibility, and overall financial performance. How Working Capital Impacts Cash Changes in working capital are reflected in a firm’s cash flow statement. Here are some examples of how cash and working capital can be impacted. If a transaction increases current assets and current liabilities by the same amount, there would be no change in working capital. For example, if a company received cash from short-term debt to be paid in 60 days, there would be an increase in the cash flow statement. However, there would be no increase in working capital, because the proceeds from the loan would be a current asset or cash, and the note payable would be a current liability since it's a short-term loan.  If a company purchased a fixed asset such as a building, the company's cash flow would decrease. The company's working capital would also decrease since the cash portion of current assets would be reduced, but current liabilities would remain unchanged because it would be long-term debt.  Conversely, selling a fixed asset would boost cash flow and working capital. If a company purchased inventory with cash, there would be no change in working capital because inventory and cash are both current assets. However, cash flow would be reduced by the inventory purchases.  The Bottom Line A company’s working capital is a core part of funding its daily operations. However, it's important to analyze both working capital and cash flow of a company to determine whether the financial activity is a short-term or long-term event. A boost in cash flow and working capital might not be good if the company is taking on long-term debt that it doesn't generate enough cash flow to pay off. Conversely, a large decrease in cash flow and working capital might not be so bad if the company is using the proceeds to invest in long-term fixed assets that will generate earnings in the years to come.                 I . XO   The Difference Between "Hard Money" and "Soft Money" Hard money and soft money are terms that can be understood in various contexts. In economics, it is often used to describe (hard) coin money and (soft) paper money, respectively. These terms can also be used to refer to political contributions in the United States, which can be made directly to a specific candidate (hard money) or indirectly to political parties and political action committees (soft money). The rules governing the two types of contributions differ, and it may be prudent to check these rules in detail before making a contribution.  Hard and soft money can also refer to how clients pay the brokers or financial services providers, where hard money refers to direct payments for services rendered (e.g. brokerage commissions) and soft money to payments for indirect items (e.g. in settling a costly error by providing free research). Soft money arrangements in the financial industry are common, but are must usually disclosed to stakeholders and regulators.  Hard Money When cash is contributed directly to a political candidate, it is known as a "hard money" contribution. These contributions may only come from an individual or a political action committee, and must follow the strict limits set forth by the Federal Election Commission (FEC). For example, during the 2017-2018 election cycle, donors were subject to the following limits: $5,000 per candidate, per election, from a non-connected committee that qualifies as a multi-candidate committee. Donating to a candidate or candidates in excess of those federal limits can result in criminal charges including fines and jail time for violating campaign finance laws. To each candidate or candidate committee per election To national party committee per calendar year To state, district & local party committee per calendar year To any other political committee per calendar year $2,500 $30,800 $10,000 (combined limit) $5,000 Soft Money When cash is contributed to a political party or political action committee (PAC) with no limits attached to the amount that can be received, this is known as a "soft money" contribution. The funds can come from individuals and political action committees as with "hard money," but they can also come from any other source, such as corporations. The law says this money can only be used for "party-building activities" such as advocating the passage of a law and voter registration, and not for advocating a particular candidate in an election. The supreme court case Citizens United says that soft money contributions can be unlimited in that they constitute a form of free speech that is protected by the First Amendment, although this ruling has remained controversial. PACs that receive unlimited funds as soft money cannot be directly linked to or directed by the political candidate or candidates that they support. This is an important caveat, since if it is found out that a candidate is dictating what message or television ad the PAC or Super PAC will air, they are considered to be directly influencing how the money is used, making it a hard money contribution—and violating campaign finance laws.     Hard Money vs. Soft Money: Difference Hard Money: In the United States, political contributions are usually divided into hard money and soft money. Hard money is the money given by a contributor directly to the presidential candidate, and is limited in amount, since it is governed by the regulations of the Federal Election Commission (FEC). The FEC stipulates the guidelines as to how one can contribute, in this case. It is given directly to a particular person for his/her election activities. Soft Money: Soft money is a political contribution that is unregulated. Labor unions and corporations are allowed to give soft money, only to parties, and cannot give them to individual candidates for federal office. This can be used for party-building activities, and cannot be used for a particular candidate. These funds are mostly used for advertisements and other activities. However, with the rising problems of unfair practices and corruption seeping in due to politics, the FEC sought to regulate soft money too. There are regulations on both hard money and soft money, as of today.                      Z . XO   Electronic Money to e- Cash Transformation What is Electronic Money Electronic money is money which exists in banking computer systems and is available for transactions through electronic systems. Its value is backed by fiat currency and it can be exchanged into physical form however its uses are often more convenient electronically. BREAKING DOWN Electronic Money Electronic money is used for purchases and transactions globally. While it can be exchanged for fiat currency, it is much more conveniently monitored and utilized through electronic banking systems and electronic processing. The value of electronic money is established by its fiat currency which makes it different from emerging cryptocurrencies. Electronic money is backed by the central bank system. However, In the United States, only a small fraction of the currency is utilized in physical form. The remaining percentage of it is held in bank vaults and also against collateral. Currency in Circulation Electronic money can be held in various accounts. Most individuals and businesses store their money with banks which provide electronic records of the cash on deposit. Other forms of stored value electronic money include digital wallets such as PayPal and Square or prepaid cards which allow users to deposit fiat currency for electronic money. With all types of stored electronic money sources the need for fiat currency varies and as such the banking system provides for this through varying means. While banks transact fiat currency to electronic money for their customers they also hold that money in vaults at their physical locations. Since the use of electronic money is more common than physical currency, banks also deposit their cash with one of the 12 Federal Reserve banks across the nation. A primary function of the U.S. Federal Reserve and its 12 supporting banks is to manage the fiat currency in physical form. Thus, the Fed also has control over the money supply through its monetary policies and open market operations. The Fed also controls the reissuance of money and the printing of new money when fiat currency is no longer available for distribution. Electronic Payment Processing In the U.S. many people receive their paychecks through direct deposit, move money with electronic fund transfers, and spend money with credit and debit cards. While physical currency still has advantages in certain situations, its role has gradually diminished. Many consumers and businesses feel that electronic money is more secure because it is not easily lost or damaged and can be available for use at nearly all merchants across the U.S. Therefore, the U.S. financial market has a secure and well established infrastructure for transacting electronic money. The primary means for electronic money transactions is through payment processing networks. In the U.S. Visa and Mastercard are the two primary payment processing networks facilitating the transactions of electronic money across the nation. Banks and financial institutions partner with electronic money networking processors to issue their customers branded network cards which facilitate the transactions of electronic money from bank accounts to merchants. Digital wallets are also available following similar transaction protocals. Electronic money is also easily transacted through e-commerce allowing consumers to shop and purchase all types of goods and services online. ++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++                                 e-  MONEY = Mine On Natural Energy You                                 ++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++

In this article we will discuss about the food chains, food webs and trophic levels of various organisms in the environment. Food Chains, Food Webs and Trophic Levels: 1. Food Chain: The transfer of food energy from the soured in plants through a series of organisms with repeated eating and being eaten, is called food chain (Fig. 48.2). a. At each transfer about 80 to 90 per cent of the potential energy is lost. A small fraction of energy is lost due to the inability of the consumer to fully digest the food and absorb the nutrients, The major loss is to meet the metabolic requirements of the consumer. b. To minimise the loss, the number of steps or links in a sequence is limited, usually to four or five. c. The shorter the chain, the greater is the available energy. Food chains are of two basic types: i. Living food chain: Starting from a base, viz., green plants, bacteria → micro- and macrophages herbivores → carnivores. ii. Detritus food chain: Dead bodies → microorganisms → detritus feeders → preda­tors. 2. Food Web: Food chains are not isolated sequences but interconnected with one another. A particular species may be eaten by a number of consumers and a consumer may eat a number of species. Food web is the trophic relationship among the species in an area. A food web usually consists of a number of food chains. 3. Trophic Level: In complex natural communities the numbers of steps involved in obtaining food from plants are considered as trophic level. The green plants—first trophic level; plant eaters—the second level; carnivores—the third level and the secondary carnivores— the fourth trophic level. The food chain or the web of relations is a complex one. In an open woodland the producers are grasses, herbs and trees. Aphids feed on producers and are primary consumers. Birds feed on aphids or primary consumers and are secondary consumers. The hawks feed on the birds and are tertiary consumers. In an aquatic environment diatoms are primary producers, crustaceans like cope- pods are primary consumers. Fishes are secondary consumers. Carnivorous fishes are tertiary consumers. Energy Flow: Living organisms utilize solar energy. a. The radiant energy is transformed into chemical energy. b. The chemical energy is transformed into mechanical and heat energy in cellular metabolism. c. The solar flux is a constant and its value is 2 calories per square centimetre per minute (2 cal/cm2/min). d. Plants absorb about 45% of the solar energy reaching an ecosystem, a part of which is lost as heat and the rest is used in photosynthesis. Energy Fixation by Autotrophs: This is best expressed by the equation of photosynthesis. 6CO2 + 12H2O - 673 kilo cal./Chlorophyll – C6H12O6 + 6CO2 + 6H2O Gross Primary Production: The amount of carbohydrate synthesized by plants. Net Primary Production: Certain amount of carbohydrate produced is used in respiration of plants and the rest is net primary production. Gross primary production - loss in res­piration = net primary production. Net Community Production: A part of the net primary production is consumed by animals. The sum total of the part left is known as net community pro­duction. Measurement of Primary pro­ducers: A good number of techniques, viz., Har­vest method, Oxygen and Carbon dioxide measurement, pH method, Radio-active method and, Disappearance of raw materi­als, have been developed to measure pri­mary production, i.e., the amount and rate of energy fixation by autotrophs. Energy Flow beyond Producer Level: 1. Energy flow is unidirectional, i.e., pro­ducer to consumer. 2. The loss of energy is about 80 to 90% in each step of energy transfer. Fate of Energy beyond the Pri­mary Consumers: The herbivores are primary consumers. In a rough estimate the herbivores incorpo­rate about 15 g cal/cm2/yr of energy. Of this they lose 4.5 g cal/cm/yr or 30% of energy due to metabolic activities. The rest 10.5 g cal/cm2/yr of energy is available to the carnivores. But the actual amount utilised is only 3 g cal/cm2/yr which passes to the carnivores. In the carnivore level again, 60% of the energy is spent in metabolism and the rest 40% becomes part of the non-utilised sedi­ments. Pyramid of Biomass: 1. The interactions of the food chain phenomena and the size-metabolism rela­tionship results in communities having a definite trophic structure, which is often characteristic of a particular type of eco­system. 2. Trophic structure arid the trophic function may be shown graphically by means of ecological pyramids (Fig. 48.3), in which the first or the producer level forms the base, and the successive levels or the tiers make up the apex. 3. The pyramid of biomass is based on the total dry weight, caloric value, or other measure of the total amount of living ma­terials. 4. In general, the biomass pyramid gives a rough picture of the overall effect of the food chain relationships for the ecological group as a whole 5. When the total weight of individuals at successive trophic levels is plotted, a gradually sloping pyramid may be expected as long as the size of the organisms dose not differ greatly. Biogeochemical Cycle of the Ecosystem: The elements, including all the essential elements of protoplasm, circulate in the biosphere in characteristic paths from environment to organisms and back to the en­vironment. This is biogeochemical cycle. The elements and dissolved substances essential to life have been termed biogenic salts or nutrients. These are divided into two groups. Macronutrients—carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, potassium, calcium, magnesium, sulphur and phosphorus, and Micronutrients—iron, manganese, copper, zinc, boron, sodium, molybdenum, chlorine and cobalt, The movements of nutrients are known as nutrient cycling. Three major nutrient cycles have been identified: Hydrologic Cycle: Hydrological cycle (Fig. 48.4) is con­cerned with the movement of a compound, the water. Water is an agent of geologic change, eroding in one place and depositing in another. It distributes many chemicals including salts and dissolved gases. Water prevents great fluctuation of temperature and helps in metabolic activity of the orga­nisms. 1. The cycle involves an interchange of components between the earth's surface and the atmosphere via precipitation and evapo­ration. 2. The world precipitation is about 5.20 x 1020g (geo-gram) annually. Of this about 1.08 x 1020g falls on land surfaces, the remainder 4.12 x 1020g on ocean surfaces. The distribution of particular types of eco­systems is dependent on precipitation and evaporation. 3. More water evaporates from ocean than that returns to it via rainfall and, conversely, less water evaporates from land and more -returns to it through rainfall. 4. That means a part of the rainfall which supports land ecosystem comes from the water evaporated from the ocean. In Mississippi valley as much as 90% of the rainfall comes from the ocean. 5. The amount of fresh water in ponds, lakes and rivers is about 0.25 geo-gram. The annual rainfall on land is 1.08 geo-gram and the run-off is 0.37 geo-gram per year. Thus the annual recharge rate of ground water is 1.08 – 0.37 = 0.71 geo-gram. 6. The circulation pattern of atmosphere determines the pattern of precipitation. Gaseous Nutrient Cycle: The atmosphere constitutes the major reservoir of elements that exist there in gaseous state. Carbon and nitrogen are chief constituents of the gaseous nutrient cycle. Carbon Cycle: The carbon cycle is simplest of all the nutrient cycles. 1. The cycling of carbon from atmo­sphere to producers → consumers → de­composers and back to atmosphere is known as carbon cycle (Fig. 48.5). 2. Ocean is the chief reservoir of carbon. It is stored as bicarbonate and the amount is fifty times greater than that in the air. This carbon regulates the amount of carbon in the atmosphere. 3. Atmosphere is the minor reservoir, but the basic movement occurs through it 4. The CO2 concentration in atmosphere ranges from 0.03 to 0.04 per cent. 5. The annual fixation of CO2 by green plants is about 4 to 9 x 1013 kg. 6. A considerable amount of biologically fixed carbon is returned to the atmosphere as gaseous CO2 through respiration of producers and consumers. 7. The decomposers return a greater amount through their respiration and pro­cessing of waste materials. 8. The interchange between atmospheric and aquatic carbon dioxide occurs through diffusion, the direction of flow governed by the concentration. 9. The aquatic phase occurs through pre­cipitation. 10. A litre of rain water contains about 0.3 ml CO2. The dissolved CO2 combines with the water of the ecosystem and forms car­bonic acid, the reaction being always revers­ible. 11. The carbonic acid in its turn dissoci­ates in a reversible reaction into H+ and HCO2 ions. The bicarbonate ions again dis­sociate reversibly into H+ and CO3 ions. Nitrogen Cycle: The movement of nitrogen from atmo­sphere to earth and back to the atmosphere is called nitrogen cycle (Fig. 48.6). It is a complete and perfect cycle. 1. The atmosphere contains about 79% nitrogen but most organisms are unable to use this nitrogen. 2. Nitrogen for the use of organisms comes from inorganic substances like am­monia, nitrite and nitrate and also in organic forms like urea, protein and nucleic acids. Nitrogen fixation: The nitrogen of the air is transformed into nitrates by. (A) electrification and pho­tochemical means and (B) nitrogen fixing organisms, chiefly microorganisms. A. The amount of nitrogen fixed by elec­trification and photochemical processes is about 35 mg/m2/yr. B. The amount of nitrogen fixed by bio­logical means is about 140-700 mg/m2/yr. a. Nitrogen fixing bacteria: i. Free living. Examples: Azetobactor (aerobic), Clostridium (anaerobic). ii. Symbiotic nodule bacteria on legumi­nous plants. Example: Rhizobium. iii. Purple bacteria. Example: Rhodospirillum, b. Blue green algae: Examples: Anabaena, Nostoc. c. Some lichens: Nitrates and other simpler nitrogen com­pounds are used by plants for the synthesis of amino acid and protein, which, in turn, reach the animals. Course of Events in Nitrogen Cycle Ammonification: The protoplasm of dead animals and plants is acted upon by bacteria, actinomycetes and fungi, both on land and in water. While utilizing the organic nitrogen- rich materials, they convert those to and release the organic form, ammonia. The process is ammonification or mineralization. A good amount of ammonia is also gained from volcanic action. Nitrification: The process by which ammonia or am­monium salts are converted to nitrates is known as nitrification. It is slow, pH-dependent and occurs in acid condition. The process has two steps—(a) The bacteria Nitromonous convert ammonia to nitrite (NO2) and (b) other bacteria, viz., Nitrobactor con­vert nitrite into nitrate (NO3). Some organisms can use nitrogen in ammonia, but the majority are incapable of doing this. Nitrate is the accessible form to them. De-nitrification: Release of nitrogen from nitrogenous compounds is de-nitrification. By the action of denitrifying bacteria Pseudomonas, Bacillus denitrificans. Mirococus, which can free the nitrogen, it enters the air as a gas and the nitrogen cycle is maintained. The characteristic of nitrogen cycle is that the steps in conversion of protein to nitrates provide energy to the organisms which accomplish the breakdown. But the return steps from nitrite to protoplasm require energy from other sources, sunlight or or­ganic matter. Sedimentary Nutrient Cycle: The lithosphere constitutes the major res­ervoir of the elements—phosphorus and sulphur. Phosphorus and sulphur play im­portant role in the metabolism and growth of organisms. In the pathway of these es­sential nutrients short or long term stagna­tion occurs. Sedimentation in the oceans and deep continental lakes are most significant stagnation stages. Phosphorus cycle: The ratio of phosphorus to other ele­ments in organisms is considerably greater than the ratio of phosphorus in the available and primary sources. Ecologically, phospho­rus is very significant as it is the limiting or regulating element in productivity. The phosphorus cycle is simple (Fig. 48.7). Release of phosphorus: 1. The rocks or other deposits formed in geological ages are the reservoirs of phos­phorus. 2. Phosphorus is released to the ecosys­tem with the erosion of the reservoirs. 3. Much of the released phosphorus reaches sea, where a part of it is deposited in the shallow sediments, and a part is lost in the deep sediments. Return of phosphorus: The return to the cycle is inadequate. 1. Sea birds bring back phosphorus through their 'guano' deposits. 2. Marine fish harvested by man is also a good source of phosphorus. Plants take inorganic phosphate as orthophosphate ions. The phosphorus is trans­ferred to consumers. After death, dissolved phosphate is released with the action of microorganisms, the decomposers. The ex­creta of animals also return phosphorus to the cycle. Sulphur Cycle: The reservoirs of sulphur are soil and sedimentary rocks. The atmosphere is a minor reservoir formed from fuel combus­tion. 1. The sulphur cycle (Fig. 48.8) is regu­lated by a group of specialized microorgan­isms, each carrying out a particular oxida­tion or reduction. 2. The sedimentary aspect of the cycle involves precipitation of sulphur in the pres­ence of iron in anaerobic condition. 3. Ferrous sulphate is insoluble in neu­tral or alkaline water and as a result the sulphur has the potential for being bound up under these conditions to the limits of the amount of iron present. 4. The biologically incorporated sul­phur is mineralized by bacteria and fungi in decomposition. Some such sul­phur is also directly reduced to sul­phides, including hydrogen sulphide, by bacteria. The sulphur cycle is regulated by the interaction of geochemical, meteorological and biological processes. Inorganic sulphate SO4 is the source of elemental sulphur in the ecosystems. The sulphate is reduced to el­emental sulphur or to hydrogen sulphide by anaerobic bacteria.

After styling an 18th century wig for the first time last year, I wanted to give it another go and make myself another. I decided this time I wanted to try the hedgehog style. I had a look through the pictures I have saved of the style for inspiration, as it can vary a bit and settled on something like the images below. I also decided I wanted to make it in pink, as coloured hair powders were actually a thing back then and I thought it would be fun. Plus it would be a little ode to the 2006 Marie Antoinette film. This blog will take you through my process step by step. I'm not an expert in wigs or wig styling, but have picked up a few tips and techniques from my drag and cosplay friends and I hope you find this helpful! For this you will need: Long, nice quality lacefront wig Styling wig head  Pins Foam rollers Wig stand Strainer, colander or sieve Boiling water Rat tail comb Baby powder & powder puff or brush Hair pins Bobby pins Scissors to cut the lace Starch spray Metal hair sectioning clips Finding the right wig: I can't stress enough that it's of the utmost importance that you have a good quality wig. I've seen far toom many gorgeous 18th century outfits marred by horribly cheap looking shiny pre-styled wigs.  Firstly, your wig should be lacefront, we want to give the illusion we've styled our actual hair; a hard front to your wig is jarring and distracts from your outfit, and generally just looks bad (unless your going for judge-core).  We want to avoid our wigs looking like this My next piece of advice is you should probably avoid a white wig; your instinct might be to choose a wig that is white as you most often see white hair in 18th century portraits, however the whiteness was created by the powder added to hair and not the hair itself, and most hair is more grey looking than a stark white. I would recommend a natural hair colour, though if you do want to go for an unnatural colour (as coloured hair powders were a thing as you can see in the portraits above), pick something a bit muted rather than anything too bright and vibrant.  This is the wig I bought And lastly, look for a wig that isn't too shiny, plastic-y or cheap looking. This doesn't mean you have to splash out on human hair or spend a tonne, the wig I used is synthetic and only set me back £30-£40. These days it's far easier to find affordable synthetic wigs that won't blind you with a hideous shine. Again, we're aiming for something that could kind of pass as your own hair. And of course wigs and hair pieces back then weren't synthetic. Also, don't get one with darker roots or an ombre! It's a popular style of wig these days but we want to avoid it, after all the hair would have been powdered everywhere, especially the roots. Of course, you don't have to follow these tips, they're just my advice for the best results in my opinion~ Styling the wig: The very first thing I did was put my wig on the styling wig head, and pin it down at the lace. I started by taking my comb and using the tail to separate sections of the hair, doing a few at a time and keeping them separate with clips. I rolled each section with a foam roller, staring at the front top and working my way back, and secured them in place just by twisting them as you can see in the photo below. I made sure to keep the curls symmetrical. Since I wanted the bottom back of the hair to be longer than the rest, I didn't secure them as high up. Once all the rollers were in, I took the wig to the shower and put it in a strainer; I wet the wig while I boiled the kettle. Once the kettle was boiled, I poured the boiling water over the wig, making sure to get every spot wet. I boiled a little extra water for good measure. The boiling water is what's going to set the curls. It's important to avoid using a curling iron as that would melt the synthetic hair. Next I left the wig to dry in the rollers on a wig stand that would let the air flow. I left it until the next day, by which time most of it was dry other than the bottom 4 curls, so I used a hairdryer to dry them a bit faster (you could also just leave the wig longer if you're more patient than me). Once the wig was completely dry, it was time to remove the rollers. As you can see the wig now had some amazing sausage curls. I kept the back bottom 4 in the curlers so they didn't get mixed up with the rest of the wig. Those 4 at the back will eventually make the longer part of the hairstyle. Once all but the back 4 ringlets were free, one by one I separated the sausage curls out until they were bouncy and fluffy. Next I took a few sectioning clips to keep each side of the hair separated, as it was so fluffy it was easy to lose the front. I added a small amount of baby powder at the "roots" of the wig for a little extra help with the grip and texture, and a small amount of delusion that it totally looks more powdery. At this point I took sections of the wig and pinned it up, making sure the hair pins and bobby pins went through the base of the wig. It might take you a few tries to get it to look right, my wig didn't look great the first time so I removed the pins and started over. On my second try, I twisted the sections of curls a little. You want to make sure it looks even and there are no gaps, and no places where the curls look too taut or where a lock of curls just hangs limply. You also want to make sure your hair & bobby pins aren't too obvious in the wig. This was my first attempt at pinning, which you can see didn't turn out great. Below was my 2nd attempt Once I'd pinned the top section in a way I was happy with it was time to get started on the long curls at the back. I took out the foam rollers, making sure to be more careful than I was with the other sections. Once they were in their perfect little sausage curls, I separated each ringlet a little bit, though not as much as I had for the top section as I wanted to keep it separate and distinct. And that's the wig done for the most part! You can wear the long bit down or in a ponytail. I tried a ponytail for the photos below but decided to go with keeping it down on the day I wore it. Now comes the last few steps. Give the wig a slight spray with starch spray, making sure there are no visible globules left on the strands. The starch spray basically acts as your hairspray. Hairspray doesn't work on synthetic hair the way it does on human hair which is why we're using starch spray. Before wearing you'll need to cut the lace. Basically, make sure you have your hair away in your wig cap and put your wig on, making sure it's the correct tightness (adjust if needed). Take your scissors- smaller are best- and cut in a slight zig zag around the hairline. I fully recommend you look up a video tutorial to follow when cutting You can see more of me wearing the wig in this blog post~ How to put on a wig: If you haven't worn a wig before, here's a few tips. First you want to put your hair up, if it's short then just pin it in place. If it's long then part your hair down the middle and plait each side directionally so it goes round the back/top of your hair; if you have thick hair then separate each side into two so you end up with 4 plaits. Pin everything in place so it won't slip. Next put your wig cap on. Make sure it isn't too tight for you as you'll probably be wearing it all day. Pin that in place too if you like.  Now with big wigs like this one I like to wear a wig headband, which helps keep the wig in place. You could also go for wig tape if you prefer, though I wouldn't recommend if you have a net type wig cap.  Then make sure your wig is the correct tightness for you There are straps inside with little loops for you to adjust how tight it will be. Now put your wig on, pin where needed (make sure the bobby pins aren't visible), and glue the hairline down with wig glue.

If you're sitting on a stash of extra paper plates, don't let them gather dust! These creative projects are perfect for kids and adults alike. You can unleash your inner artist or have a blast with family activities. Sometimes, searching for the right craft project can be overwhelming, especially when you're not sure where to start. Worry no more! Here's a curated list of simple paper plate crafts that are both fun and easy to make. Not only are they budget-friendly, but they're also kid-centric, making them perfect for planning activities with little ones. So, take a peek at these fantastic ideas and get creative with your mini-me's! Flower While nurturing plants and watching them grow can be a challenging and time-consuming process, especially for young children who crave instant rewards. However, with a creative twist, we can still engage kids in the world of gardening without the wait. A paper plate flower craft is an excellent way to do just that. Not only does it spark their interest in growing things, but it also provides a sense of accomplishment and instant gratification when they see their finished creation. This fun and easy activity requires minimal supplies - simply gather some paper plates, paints, and brushes. For added depth, you can incorporate 3D elements by using cardstock to cut out trees and flowers. This project is suitable for kids of all ages, including little girls and older children who will enjoy the creative challenge. DIY Woven Bowl The process of creating this charming yarn bowl is surprisingly therapeutic, with the repetitive motion of wrapping a paper plate with yarn proving to be quite meditative. To begin, you'll need to shape the plate into a bowl-like form, which will serve as the foundation for your creation. Once satisfied with the shape, grab some yarn and start wrapping around the plate in a consistent manner until the entire exterior is covered. This delightful craft can be used as a decorative trinket bowl or as a makeshift 'junk bowl' to store spare change, small odds and ends, bobbins, and other knick-knacks. What's more, this project is an enjoyable activity for adults looking to unleash their creativity. Witch For a fun and creative activity with little ones, consider whipping up a witch-themed paper plate craft. This project requires just a few simple supplies, including plenty of wicked green paint to bring your witch to life. You'll also need orange and black tissue or construction paper to create crinkled curls and a pointy hat for your spell-casting companion. Once the paint has dried, use a marker to add a nose and mouth to give your witch some personality. And why not take it to the next level by adding some googly eyes from your favorite online store? While your witch may not be the most evil-looking creature, the effort and creativity that goes into making her will surely be appreciated. Rocket The allure of outer space is undeniable, captivating both children and adults alike with its vast expanse and mysteries waiting to be unraveled. While it's easy to let the imagination run wild, exploring galaxies and stars in our minds' eyes, a real-life astronaut requires more than just mental wanderlust – they need a reliable vessel to propel them towards their celestial destinations. To ignite your child's passion for space travel and bring them one step closer to the stars, let's embark on a creative adventure with this paper plate rocket ship craft. Gather some construction paper from here to get started, and if you happen to have any leftovers, don't forget to explore these additional construction paper crafts. Bat Looking for a fun and non-spooky Halloween project for little ones? Start by gathering paper plates and setting up your craft station. You're about to create an adorable, wide-eyed bat that's sure to delight toddlers and preschoolers without the slightest hint of creepiness. To make it even easier, grab a free bat template to download, print out, and cut into its various components. Don't forget to add some black paint to give your paper plate a spooky-ooky finish. Grinch The Grinch is undoubtedly the most intimidating Halloween character. His menacing smile, piercing eyes, and vibrant green hue make him a formidable figure, even in paper plate form. While kids might enjoy crafting their own paper plate Grinches, let's focus on the essential supplies needed to bring this fearsome creature to life. To create your very own paper plate Grinch, you'll need: • A green paper plate, which can be easily sourced from [green paper plate link] • Red felt, available at [red felt link] • Paint for adding that extra touch of color and personality to your Grinch • Pipe cleaners for creating those iconic whiskers and any other details you'd like to add • A hot glue gun for securing all the components together seamlessly. If you already have plain paper plates on hand, simply grab some brushes and paint them green to achieve that signature Grinch look. Monster Get creative with this adorable monster paper plate craft! Not only is it a fun activity for kids at a party, but it's also surprisingly easy to make. All you need are some basic supplies that are probably already stashed away in your craft box. Start by tracing the shapes onto the plate using a Sharpie and felt - think teeth, tongue, eyes, horns, and mouth. If you're feeling extra playful, swap out the felt for googly eyes and add them with hot glue instead. This monster is sure to delight, and it's a great way to keep little hands busy at your next gathering. Racoon Transforming a humble paper plate into a charming raccoon figurine is a fun and creative project. The circular shape of the plate provides an ideal base for capturing the raccoon's distinctive facial features. To add some visual interest, create a few strategically placed holes on either side of the plate and thread yarn through them in different colors. This allows you to customize your raccoon's look with vibrant and playful options. Why not give it a touch of whimsy by adding purple ninja masks? Once the yarn is threaded, secure the eyes with hot glue to bring out their expressive qualities. Cotton Ball Penguin Meet the ultimate cuddle buddy: a penguin in earmuffs! Not only do they steal hearts with their adorable fluffiness, but their accessorized look is sure to delight kids of all ages. For little ones who adore playing with pom poms, these earmuffed penguins will be a match made in heaven. If you're feeling crafty, whip up your own yarn pom poms from scratch or grab some pre-made ones here. For those eager to learn the art of making pom poms, check out our comprehensive tutorial on how to create them from scratch. With this expertise under your belt, you'll be well-equipped to bring a smile to any youngster's face. Space Building on the excitement of your previous space-themed craft project with your kids, you can now take it to new heights with this innovative paper plate spacecraft creation. This activity offers endless possibilities, allowing you to collect and display a series of out-of-this-world paper crafts. With the provided template as your guide, you'll be able to bring your vision to life and create a truly immersive experience that features flying spaceships, rockets, stars, and even more cosmic elements. While cutting out the star shapes from paper can prove a bit challenging, there's a simple solution: grab a star paper punch from [link] and make the process a breeze. Apple Transforming ordinary paper plates into vibrant art pieces is an excellent way to engage your little ones in creative activities. This tissue paper apple craft, for instance, is a timeless classic that never fails to impress. By adding some color and texture to the plate, you'll be amazed at how easily your children can turn it into a realistic-looking apple. And who says they have to stop there? Encourage them to experiment with different materials, like scissors (with close adult supervision, naturally), to add an extra layer of creativity to their masterpiece. This fun and easy half-hour craft session is not only a great way to spend quality time together but also helps develop your child's artistic skills and leaves them with a beautiful keepsake. Minni Mouse As I reflect on my childhood, Minni and Mickey were undoubtedly the iconic duo that captured my imagination. Theirs was a partnership that epitomized what it means to be a power couple, even for a young mind like mine. Little did I know then that this dynamic duo would also play a significant role in shaping my creativity, particularly when it comes to crafting. Minnie, with her signature big red bow, has always been my go-to inspiration. There's something about the added pop of color and whimsy that draws me in, making our craft time together truly special. If you're looking to recreate this iconic look on your own, consider using sparkly glitter cardstock to give your Minnie a show-stopping bow. Alternatively, you can opt for a pre-made cardboard or paper cutout, adding an extra layer of ease and convenience to the process. Magnet Maze Get ready to revisit a classic childhood pastime! Who else remembers the old metal ball-and-maze game where you'd try to navigate the little sphere through twists and turns to reach the final hole? Today, we're revisiting that nostalgic fun in a simplified way, blending creativity with problem-solving. This activity is perfect for young toddlers, as it helps them develop essential skills like critical thinking and spatial awareness from an early age. As they work their way around the maze, they'll be building confidence and refining their ability to overcome obstacles - all while having a blast! Sunshine and Cloud The age-old saying 'where there's a cloud, there's also a sun' takes on a new meaning with this delightful paper plate craft project. With some planning and creativity, you can bring out the sunshine behind the clouds. Start by preparing your materials: grab two paper plates, scissors, and get ready to bring them to life. First, cut out templates for the sun and clouds from the plates. This might take a bit of patience, but trust us, it's worth it. Once you've got your shapes, it's time to add some color. Paint both components with shades of white and yellow, letting your imagination run wild. But that's not all - for an extra touch of whimsy, apply a generous amount of glue to the cloud template and stick in some fluffy cotton balls. Instantly, you'll have a bright and airy cloud that looks like it could drift away at any moment. And when paired with your sunny creation, this craft is sure to bring a smile to everyone's face. This project is perfect for a summer afternoon spent indoors or out. Unicorn Unicorns have always fascinated me, and it's not just their vibrant colors or sparkly manes that captivate me. It's the overall sense of joy and positivity they embody. As symbols of all things good and kind in the world, they deserve a special place on our paper plates. So why not commemorate these magical creatures with a fun and easy craft project? Grab some supplies and let your kids get creative making this lovely unicorn paper plate craft - it's sure to bring a smile to their faces! Princess Leia For die-hard Star Wars enthusiasts, this post is a must-read. The iconic Princess Leia, whether she's making an appearance on a humble paper plate or dominating the big screen, warrants unadulterated fan enthusiasm. It's never too early to cultivate the next generation of fans, either. As such, I've provided a downloadable Princess Leia template for you to get creative with. Why not make it a movie marathon while you're at it? Let the sounds of lightsabers and blaster fire fill the air as you craft away. The combination of Star Wars, Princess Leia, freshly popped popcorn, and quality time is the perfect recipe for an unforgettable afternoon. Winnie the Pooh As the latest Disney release of Christopher Robin hit theaters, it sparked a sense of nostalgia and wonder. For parents seeking to create a special connection with their little ones who adore Winnie the Pooh, this DIY project is a must-try. Who wouldn't love replicating Pooh bear's endearing features on a humble paper plate? To bring this delightful idea to life, gather these essential supplies: a yellow paper plate, black and yellow craft foam, glue, scissors, and a trusty marker. Fruit Slices If mealtime with your kiddos is often met with resistance when it comes to eating fruits, consider incorporating a creative twist. Create a fruity plate that combines arts and crafts with snack time, making it an enjoyable experience for everyone involved. This activity not only encourages kids to eat their favorite fruits but also fosters learning about the different types of fruits available. With a few simple steps, you can recreate a variety of fruits on a paper plate using everyday materials like scissors and research. Try featuring shapes inspired by apples, oranges, melons, kiwi, and mango for a fun and interactive experience that's sure to delight your little ones. Sydney Harbor The iconic Sydney Harbor Bridge offers a perfect setting for a fun-filled day of exploration. What's more, it's one of the world's widest long-span bridges, making it an impressive feat of engineering. As I look back on my own experience visiting the bridge, I'm reminded of the little mementos I collected as souvenirs - and still treasure them to this day. Why not try creating your own mini Sydney Harbor Bridge using paper plates? All you'll need is a pair of paper cups, some basic crafting supplies, and a dash of creativity. For an added touch of patriotism, consider adding a toothpick flag featuring the Australian colors. Ladybug The 3D effect in the ladybug design is easily achieved by flipping a paper plate over and decorating its outer surface. This simple trick adds depth to the ladybug, making her stand out even more. Additionally, this project provides an opportunity for young children to develop their fine motor skills through creative activities. To begin, grab a large paper plate and apply a base coat of red paint on both sides, ensuring that the inner surface is also finished. Tipping Teapot Hosting a tea party at playtime is an iconic experience for young children, but the logistics of fine china and delicate cups can be challenging. For younger kids and toddlers, handling plastic cups might still be a skill in development. To create a fun and interactive experience without breaking out the fancy settings, consider crafting a teapot from a paper plate. This project allows you to create a tipping teapot that can be painted at an angle, enabling 'pouring' of tea by your little ones. Moreover, this activity provides a perfect opportunity to teach them nursery rhymes or fun songs. Snowman Christmas Countdown The festive season is just around the corner, and I can already imagine the excited chatter about Christmas. In October, no less! The query that's sure to become a refrain: 'How many days until Christmas?' If you're a parent of little ones who start counting down as soon as they spot the back of Halloween, then this clever snowman calendar/clock is just what you need. Not only will your kids learn to count down the days with it, but you'll also be spared those pesky 'How many days till...? ' questions for good. St. Patricks Wreath Have you ever shared the story behind St. Patrick's Day with your kids? If so, I'm sure they're looking forward to this festive holiday and for good reason. The day offers a multitude of ways to celebrate, each one signaling a green light to fun! Why not start by crafting a unique four-leaf clover wreath using an assortment of green hues? To begin, simply cut out the rim of a paper plate, serving as the base. Gather some green construction paper from your local craft store or online marketplace to get creative. Daniel and the Lion’s Den When it comes to engaging young minds in creative activities, there's no better way than by combining artistry with storytelling. This approach not only fosters imagination but also provides a unique opportunity for kids to absorb valuable lessons from beloved tales. The Daniel and the Lion's Den story, for instance, offers a wealth of themes to explore, including faith, perseverance, and the importance of trusting one's instincts. By incorporating this narrative into a hands-on craft project, you can create a memorable experience that not only entertains but also educates your little ones. Gather your materials, settle in with your kids, and get ready for an afternoon of artistry and adventure! Suncatcher A suncatcher is a captivating visual treat that not only keeps your little ones engaged but also mesmerized by the twinkling lights. The making of the catcher itself can be a fun and creative process, taking up a significant amount of time, while the subsequent display of the dancing lights is sure to captivate their attention for hours on end. To truly appreciate this delightful activity, hang the suncatcher in front of a sunny window where its beauty can shine through. Before you begin, gather some tissue paper and cut confetti strips to add a touch of whimsy to the design. If you happen to have any leftover tissue paper, don't worry - it can be repurposed for another creative project. For inspiration, take a look at our collection of stash-busting tissue paper crafts or learn how to craft beautiful tissue paper pom poms. Snake Imagine unwinding a spiral of orange peel, only instead of citrusy goodness, it's a paper plate snake taking shape. The process is surprisingly similar, with a continuous strip of paper forming a winding coil that resembles a slithery creature. Now that we have our snake-like paper plate, let's dive into the fun part – painting and decorating! You can add spots or other designs along its body, then top it off with googly eyes from [link] and a forked tongue for an extra-realistic touch. Scarecrow Transform your DIY paper plate project into a charming scarecrow that's sure to bring joy to both you and your little one. Yes, scarecrows are typically meant to be intimidating, but who says they can't also be adorable? By crafting this sweet scarecrow together, you'll not only create a unique keepsake but also spend quality time with your child, bonding over a fun and creative activity. And if it happens to chase away a sparrow or two, well, that's just an added bonus! Whale Get ready to dive into an unforgettable DIY paper plate adventure! Who can resist making waves with a pun when you're about to create a life-sized whale out of humble paper plates? It's a whale of a time, indeed! Every child has likely explored the wonders of the ocean and its fascinating sea creatures at some point. And as adults, we're not immune to the allure of these majestic marine mammals either. This project presents an incredible opportunity for kids to engage with these gentle giants up close and personal. It's a chance to cultivate a deep appreciation and respect for the awe-inspiring mysteries and marvels that lie beneath the ocean's surface. Caterpillars As we scale down our projects from majestic whales to tiny caterpillars, it's a refreshing change of pace. Despite their smaller stature, these mini-beasts still offer plenty of fascinating facts to explore. To bring this project to life, start by trimming the ridged curved rim of the plate to create the caterpillar's distinctive body shape and texture. The existing ribbing will serve as a natural canvas for your creative endeavors. But why stop at just the body? Take it a step further by adding some vibrant colors with spots and subtle swiggles, giving your caterpillar an extra layer of realism and charm. Plane in the Clouds The allure of airplanes is undeniable. As a child, I was fascinated by these flying machines, and this fascination has only grown stronger with time. To recreate the essence of flight on a miniature scale, let's start by transforming a plain paper plate into a cloudy blue canvas. Next, we'll add some soft cotton tufts to give it a textured, cloud-like effect. Now, you have two options: either create your own plane from scratch, which can be an incredibly enjoyable experience, or use a small toy plane as the base for our craft project. This activity is perfect for kids and adults alike - easy to execute, fun to make, and adorable in its finished form. Tiger As the excitement from the zoo trip begins to wear off, why not channel that enthusiasm into a fun and creative activity with your little ones? Introduce them to the world of crafting by creating an adorable paper plate tiger together. To get started, you'll need some vibrant colors like orange, black, white, and green paint. Don't forget to grab some brushes, markers, and scissors too! You can either draw a template of the tiger on paper or directly onto the plate itself. Either way, this activity is sure to be a roaring success - just like your zoo adventure. Rainbow Teaching children about colors can be a delightful experience when done creatively. This rainbow paper plate project offers a unique opportunity to combine fun and learning in a way that fosters growth. To get started, gather your supplies: glue sticks, construction paper, a paper plate, and a paper trimmer. If you're running low on materials, feel free to swing by the local store for a quick pick-up. The entire project can be completed in under 30 minutes, but why not make it a special afternoon with your little ones? Set them up with a plate of cookies and enjoy quality time together while learning and creating. Snowman The nostalgic charm of building a snowman is undeniable. Who can resist the allure of Olaf's childlike wonder in Frozen? For me, it's not just about the characters, but the joy of creating something with friends and family. Speaking of which, have you got any spare bottle caps collecting dust? You'll need only a few to bring your snowman to life. Simply draw on a face using a black marker – don't forget those essential details like hands, a nose, and a dash of personality. This is one DIY project that's sure to delight both kids and adults alike. Frankenstein Mask Creating Frankenstein's masks is a unique DIY project that requires a bit more time and effort, but yields a truly rewarding result. As you carefully craft each detail, from the bushy eyes to the sewn-up forehead, you'll gain a new appreciation for this misunderstood monster. This project provides an excellent opportunity to involve your kids in the creative process, fostering a sense of pride and ownership as they help bring their Halloween costume to life. Spider Transforming ordinary paper plates into eerie spiders is another delightful Halloween craft project that's sure to cast a spell. The googly eyes add an endearing touch, while the black pipe cleaners provide the perfect hairy legs to complete the creepy crawly look. For a fun-filled day, consider pairing this activity with some pumpkin carving and make it a memorable celebration. Your home will be decked out in festive spirit, costumes ready, and you'll be fully prepared to welcome the spookiest of seasons. If your little one loves bugs, check out these 27 spider crafts that are sure to thrill! Black Cat To complete your Halloween crafting endeavors, consider creating a whimsical black cat using paper plates. The plate's shape provides a purrfect template for capturing the feline's silhouette. To bring this adorable creature to life, you'll need: paper plates, paint, googly eyes, pencils and markers, and scissors. As you're in the crafty spirit, be sure to explore some of these additional Halloween-themed projects: A treasure trove of 20 Spooky Halloween paper crafts awaits, along with easy activities for toddlers (27 ideas) and kids (20 fun and accessible projects). Easter Bunny Wreath Let's take a brief interlude from our Halloween-themed crafts and shift our focus to Easter, where we'll create a delightful Easter bunny wreath. To get started, cut out a circular shape from your paper plate, transforming it into a makeshift wreath form. Next, design and cut out small Easter eggs, which you'll then strategically place around the paper plate. The finishing touch involves adding the bunny's ears before writing out a heartfelt message wishing everyone a 'Hoppy Easter'. Parrot Are you prepared to unleash your creativity? If so, gather some colorful craft feathers, ideally ones that are not actual bird feathers. You'll need a couple of them to create the majestic wings for your paper plate parrot. Next, grab some red paint and basic crafting materials. Use a template to cut out the paper plate into the parrot shape, including its distinctive wings and beak. Once you have your parrot's framework in place, it's time to add some flair with hot glue. Apply the feathers to the wings, carefully shaping them to give your bird its unique plumage. Spider Web To get started with Halloween crafts for toddlers, why not begin with this simple yet engaging spider web on a paper plate? The process of weaving yarn into a web is an excellent way to develop fine motor skills while having fun. Gather your materials: white yarn from [insert source], a hole punch, a plastic spider (like the one found here), and some tape. Begin by punching random holes along the edges of the paper plate using the hole punch. Next, wrap a small amount of tape around the end of a length of yarn and pull it through the pre-punched holes in a seemingly random pattern. Leave about 3-4 inches of yarn at the end to secure the plastic spider, and you're ready to display your spooky yet adorable creation. Halloween The charm of Halloween-themed crafts is undeniable. A simple yet effective way to create spooky delights is by using paper plates, pumpkins, and ghosts. For a quick and easy project, these are my top picks. To get started, gather essential materials: pipe cleaners, googly eyes, a punch hole, and paints in various colors. Feel free to add some sparkle with glitter paint for an extra touch. After the paint dries, you can begin decorating the plates, letting your creativity shine through. Sunshine As Halloween's eerie darkness fades, let's usher in a brighter era with a creative activity that's sure to put a smile on your face. The iconic song 'You Are My Sunshine' has been a staple of childhood nostalgia for generations. Its catchy tune and uplifting lyrics make it the perfect springboard for a fun and easy craft project. So, grab a paper plate, some bright yellow paint, and get creative! Use the paint to add a sunny touch to your plate, then take out your favorite marker or brush and jot down a simple line from the song's lyrics. You can also experiment with different brush paints or paint markers for an added pop of color. Reindeer Purse Rudolph, the beloved reindeer with his signature red nose, is the star of our crafting adventure today. Yes, you heard that right - we're making a reusable purse out of paper plates! This humble craft project has a dual purpose: it'll keep your kids' creative supplies organized and tidy when not in use, while also serving as a cute little carrying case for their small toys or trinkets. And what's the secret to its charm? None other than Rudolph's endearing presence, which we're sure will make this project a hit with your little ones. Minion When it came time to tackle this Minion paper plate project, I deliberately saved it for last. And as the saying goes, good things are worth the wait - or in this case, the perfect Minion's details were well worth the effort. To me, the defining feature of a Minion is its distinctive shade of yellow. While other aspects can be adjusted to some extent, that iconic color remains non-negotiable. So, take your time finding the ideal yellow hue to use as the foundation for your creation. Then, grab either a canning band or a mason jar ring from [here](link). If there's space for an additional eye, you'll want to have two on hand. Octopus The enigmatic nature of octopi sets them apart from other creatures, both in and out of the ocean. Their built-in protection mechanisms only add to their mystique, making them a fascinating topic for exploration. This octopus paper craft project provides an engaging way to introduce children to the wonders of sea life. Whether they're already fascinated by marine biology or just beginning to learn about it, this activity offers a fun and creative outlet for kids to express their interest in these curious creatures. As you work on the tentacles, be sure to hone your paper curling skills – a crucial step in bringing this underwater world to life. Christmas Tree As the festive season approaches, an irresistible urge to indulge in holiday cheer and creative pursuits often takes hold. For some, this manifests as a passion for crafting Christmas trees, while others may be labelled 'Grumpus' or even 'Scrooge' if they resist the holiday craze. But fear not, dear reader! This charming little Christmas tree decoration offers a simple yet effective solution to keep your young ones engaged and entertained while also adding a touch of festive flair to your home's decor - it can even be incorporated into your actual Christmas tree setup. Patriotic Wreath As Independence Day approaches, consider taking some time to educate your children about the history of their country and its cultural heritage. A great starting point is exploring the symbolism behind the national flag, from the number of stars that represent the states to the colors that embody unity and freedom. This can be a fun and interactive experience for kids. For a craft project, grab a paper plate and trim the edges to create a wreath form. Use this as a base to decorate with colored tissue paper, adding a personal touch to your celebrations. Thanksgiving Thankful Wheel Incorporating gratitude practices in children from an early age is essential to foster a sense of appreciation and thankfulness. One effective way to start this journey is by creating a gratitude collage together. Begin by writing down all the things you're thankful for on a piece of paper, then divide it into sections that resemble slices of pumpkin pie. Next, have fun painting or decorating each section with colors and patterns that reflect the theme. This activity not only helps children develop an attitude of gratitude but also adds a creative twist to their Thanksgiving celebration. 47 Fun Paper Plate Crafts for KidsWith a stash of paper plates at home, you can whip up some delightful and inexpensive crafts with kids. These creative projects require just 10 minutes of prep time and 20 minutes of hands-on activity, making them an excellent way to spend quality time with the little ones. Whether you're looking for a fun and easy activity or a clever way to reuse paper plates, this collection has got you covered. MaterialsIn a creative burst, a list of 47 imaginative ideas unfolded, each one more fascinating than the last. From whimsical creatures like bats and ladybugs to mythical beings like unicorns and dragons, this collection showcases the limitless potential of the human imagination. You'll find DIY projects like woven bowls and magnet mazes alongside magical realms like witchcraft and fairy tales. The list also includes natural wonders like sunsets and snowmen, as well as iconic characters from pop culture like Winnie the Pooh and Princess Leia. And let's not forget the holidays - with wreaths for St. Patrick's Day and Easter, to Christmas trees and Halloween decorations, this list has something for everyone. InstructionsEmbark on a creative journey by crafting with paper plates! Start by gathering essential materials and unleashing your imagination to create something unique. Whether you're a seasoned crafter or just starting out, this project is perfect for all skill levels. Share your experience with others by leaving a comment below, and be assured that your feedback will not go unnoticed - I personally respond to every comment!

Electronic Work In Space   So in a basic sense, not much really changes, and it's possible, with a bit of work, to use off-the-shelf components to do the same job out in space. However, there's a subtler way in which earth-bound electronics do benefit from Earth's magnetic field. ... Electronics do not need a magnetic field to work .                                                               Challenges for Electronic Circuits in Space Applications  To set the stage for this discussion let me propose this scenario: imagine yourself as an astronaut sitting in the crew module of the NASA Orion spacecraft. You are stepping through your final equipment checklist for a voyage to Mars while sitting on top of a rocket, anticipating the final countdown to ignition of the largest rocket ever designed—the NASA Space Launch System. You are sitting 384 feet in the air on a massive, 130 metric ton configuration, the most capable and powerful launch vehicle in history. When you hear those famous words “gentlemen, we have ignition,” you will have 9.2 million pounds of thrust propelling you into outer space. The Orion spacecraft is being designed to take humans to Mars and into deep space where the temperature can approach over 2000°C, the radiation is deadly, and you will be travelling at speeds up to 20,000 mph.                                 Now , what quality grade of electronic components were selected for the control systems of your spacecraft? High reliability and devices with space heritage are key factors in the selection of components for space level applications. NASA generally specifies Level 1, qualified manufacturer list Class V (QMLV) devices, and they will always ask if there is a higher quality level available. Knowing the extensive selection process NASA uses for identifying electronic components for space flight applications, one should be confident sitting on top of that rocket. The Harsh Environmental Conditions of a Spacecraft and the Hazards Posed to the Electronics The first hurdle for space electronics to overcome is the vibration imposed by the launch vehicle. The demands placed on a rocket and its payload during launch are severe. Rocket launchers generate extreme noise and vibration. There are literally thousands of things that can go wrong and result in a ball of flame. When a satellite separates from the rocket in space, large shocks occur in the satellite’s body structure. Pyrotechnic shock is the dynamic structural shock that occurs when an explosion occurs on a structure. Pyroshock is the response of the structure to high frequency, high magnitude stress waves that propagate throughout the structure as a result of an explosive charge, like the ones used in a satellite ejection or the separation of two stages of a multistage rocket. Pyroshock exposure can damage circuit boards, short electrical components, or cause all sorts of other issues. Understanding the launch environment provides a greater appreciation for the shock and vibration requirements, and inspections imposed on electronic components designed for use in space level applications. Outgassing is another major concern. Plastics, glues, and adhesives can and do outgas. Vapor coming off of plastic devices can deposit material on optical devices, thereby degrading their performance. For instance, an automobile plastic dashboard can emit vapor that deposits a film on the windshield. This is a practical example I can attest to from personal experience. Using ceramic rather than plastic components eliminates this problem in electronics. Outgassing of volatile silicones in low Earth orbit (LEO) cause a cloud of contaminants around the spacecraft. Contamination from outgassing, venting, leaks, and thruster firing can degrade and modify the external surfaces of the spacecraft. High levels of contamination on surfaces can contribute to electrostatic discharge. Satellites are vulnerable to charging and discharging. For that reason, space applications require components with no floating metal. Satellite charging is a variation in the electrostatic potential of a satellite, with respect to the surrounding low density plasma around the satellite. The extent of the charging depends on the design of the satellite and the orbit. The two primary mechanisms responsible for charging are plasma bombardment and photoelectric effects. Discharges as high as 20,000 V have been known to occur on satellites in geosynchronous orbits. If protective design measures are not taken, electrostatic discharge, a buildup of energy from the space environment, can damage the devices. A design solution used in geosynchronous Earth orbit (GEO) is to coat all the outside surfaces of the satellite with a conducting material. The atmosphere in LEO is comprised of about 96% atomic oxygen. Oxygen exists in different forms. The oxygen that we breathe is O2. O3 occurs in Earth’s upper atmosphere, and O (one atom) is atomic oxygen. Atomic oxygen can react with organic materials on spacecraft exteriors and gradually damage them. Material erosion by atomic oxygen was noted on NASA’s first space shuttle missions, where the presence of atomic oxygen caused problems. Space shuttle materials looked frosty because they were actually being eroded and textured by the presence of atomic oxygen. NASA addressed this problem by developing a thin film coating that is immune to the reaction with atomic oxygen. Plastics are considerably sensitive to atomic oxygen and ionizing radiation. Coatings resistant to atomic oxygen are a common protection method for plastics. Another obstacle is the very high temperature fluctuations encountered by a spacecraft. A satellite orbiting around Earth can be divided into two phases; a sunlit phase and an eclipse phase. In the sunlit phase, the satellite is heated by the Sun and as the satellite moves around the back side or shadow side of the Earth, the temperature can change by as much as 300°C. Because it is closer to the Sun, the temperature fluctuations on a satellite in GEO stationary orbit will be much greater than the temperature variations on a satellite in LEO. It is interesting to note that during lunar day and night, the temperature on the surface of the Moon can vary from around –200°C to +200°C. It makes you wonder how it was even possible for a man to walk on the Moon. Here again, ceramic packages can withstand repeated temperature fluctuations, provide a greater level of hermeticity, and remain functional at higher power levels and temperatures. Ceramic packages provide higher reliability in harsh environments. So how do you dissipate the heat generated by the electronics? The accuracy and life expectancy of electronic devices can be degraded by sustained high temperatures. There are three ways of transferring heat: convective, diffusive, and radiative. In the vacuum of space there is no thermal convection or conduction taking place. Radiative heat transfer is the primary method of transferring heat in a vacuum, so satellites are cooled by radiating heat out into space. The vacuum of space is a favorable environment for tin whiskers, so prohibited materials are a concern. Pure tin, zinc, and cadmium plating are prohibited on IEEE parts and associated hardware in space. These materials are subject to the spontaneous growth of whiskers that can cause electrical shorts. Tin whiskers are electrically conductive, crystalline structures of tin that sometimes grow from surfaces where tin is used as a final finish. Devices with pure tin leads can suffer from the tin whiskers phenomenon that can cause electrical shorts. Using lead-based solder eliminates the risk of shorts occurring when devices are used in high stress applications. Finally, the space radiation environment can have damaging effects on spacecraft electronics. There are large variations in the levels of and types of radiation a spacecraft may encounter. Missions flying at low Earth orbits, highly elliptical orbits, geostationary orbits, and interplanetary missions have vastly different environments. In addition, those environments are changing. Radiation sources are affected by the activity of the Sun. The solar cycle is divided into two activity phases: the solar minimum and the solar maximum. Will your spacecraft mission occur during a solar minimum, a solar maximum period, or both? The key point here is that there are vastly different environments in space. The requirements for a launch vehicle are much different from that of a geostationary satellite or a Mars rover. Each space program has to be evaluated in terms of reliability, radiation tolerance, environmental stresses, the launch date, and the expected life cycle of the mission. Analog Devices has been supporting the aerospace and defense markets for over 40 years with high reliability devices. Areas of focus are electronic warfare, radar, communications, avionics, unmanned systems, and missile and smart munitions applications. Today’s focus is on the space market. Analog Devices has the depth and breadth of technologies that spans the complete signal chain from sensors, amplifiers, RF and microwave devices, ADCs, DACs, and output devices that provide solutions to the challenging requirements of the aerospace and defense industry.                               The satellite industry’s revenue was $208 billion in 2015. There are four segments to the satellite industry: satellite manufacturing, satellite launch equipment, ground-based equipment, and satellite services. Satellite services is by far the largest segment and continues to be a key driver for the overall satellite industry. So, what has a satellite done for you lately? I believe most people would be surprised at just how much modern life depends on satellites services. If the 1381 satellites currently in operation happen to shut down, modern life would be significantly disrupted. Global finance, telecommunications, transportation, weather, national defense, aviation, and many other sectors rely heavily on satellite services. There are three primary segments in the satellite services market: satellite navigation, satellite communications, and Earth observation. Navigation satellites are used for the global distribution of navigation signals and data in order to provide positioning, location, and timing services. Examples of available services are traffic management, surveying and mapping, fleet and asset management, and autonomous driving technology—driverless cars and trucks are expected to be the next big thing. Telecommunication satellites or SATCOM examples are television, telephone, broadband internet, and satellite radio. These systems can provide uninterrupted communications services in the event of disasters that damage ground-based telecommunication networks. Both business and commercial aircraft in-flight internet and mobile entertainment are growing segments of the market. Earth observation satellites are used for the transmission of environmental data. Space-based observations of the Earth promote sustainable agriculture and aid in the response to climate change, land and wildlife management, and energy resources management. Earth observation satellites aid in the safeguard of water resources and improve weather forecasts, so there is a very wide and growing range of satellite services. So what types of electronic systems are used on satellites? The basic elements of a spacecraft are divided into two sections: the platform or bus and the payload. The platform consists of the five basic subsystems that support the payload: the structural subsystem, the telemetry subsystem, tracking and command subsystems, the electric power and distribution subsystem, the thermal control subsystem, and the attitude and velocity control subsystem. The structural subsystem is the mechanical structure and provides stiffness to withstand stress and vibration. It also provides shielding from radiation for the electronic devices. The telemetry, tracking, and command subsystems include receivers, transmitters, antennas, sensors for temperature, current, voltage, and tank pressure. It also provides the status of various spacecraft subsystems. The electric power and distribution subsystems convert solar into electrical power and charge the spacecraft batteries. The thermal control subsystem helps to protect electronic equipment from extreme temperatures. And finally, the attitude and velocity control subsystem is the orbit control system that consists of sensors to measure vehicle orientation and actuators (reaction wheels, thrusters), and to apply the torques and forces needed to orient the vehicle in the correct orbital position. Typical components of the attitude and control system include Sun and Earth sensors, star sensors, momentum wheels, inertial measurement units (IMUs), and the electronics required to process the signals and control the satellites position. The payload is the equipment in support of the primary mission. For GPS navigation satellites, this would include atomic clocks, navigation signal generators, and high power RF amplifiers and antennas. For telecommunications systems, the payload would include antennas, transmitters and receivers, low noise amplifiers, mixers and local oscillators, demodulator and modulators, and power amplifiers. Earth observation payloads would include microwave and infrared sounding instruments for weather forecasting, visible infrared imaging radiometers, ozone mapping instruments, visible and infrared cameras, and sensors. The integration of Analog Devices and Hittite Microwave a few years ago now allows us to cover the dc to 110 GHz spectrum. ADI solutions range from navigation, radar, communication systems below 6 GHz, satellite communications, electronic warfare, radar systems in the microwave spectrum, radar systems, and satellite imaging in the millimeter wave spectrum. Analog Devices offers more than 1000 components covering all RF and microwave signal chains and applications. The combination of Hittite’s full spectrum of RF function blocks, attenuators, LNAs, PAs, and RF switches, in conjunction with Analog Devices portfolio of high performance linear products, high speed ADCs, DACs, active mixers, and PLLs can provide end-to-end system solutions. The Natural Space Radiation Environment Effects on Electronic Devices The radiation effects on electronic devices are a primary concern for space level applications. Outside the protective cover of the Earth’s atmosphere, the solar system is filled with radiation. The natural space radiation environment can damage electronic devices and the effects range from a degradation in parametric performance to a complete functional failure. These effects can result in reduced mission lifetimes and major satellite system failures. The radiation environment close to Earth is divided into two categories: particles trapped in the Van Allen belts and transient radiation. The particles trapped in the Van Allen belts are composed of energetic protons, electrons, and heavy ions. The transient radiation consists of galactic cosmic ray particles and particles from solar events (coronal mass ejections and solar flares). There are two primary ways that radiation can effect satellite electronics: total ionizing dose (TID) and single event effects (SEEs). TID is a long-term failure mechanism vs. SEE, which is an instantaneous failure mechanism. SEE is expressed in terms of a random failure rate, whereas TID is a failure rate that can be described by a mean time to failure.                                                       Sources of ionizing radiation in interplanetary space TID is a time dependent, accumulated charge in a device over the lifetime of a mission. A particle passing through a transistor generates electron hole pairs in the thermal oxide. The accumulated charges can create leakage currents, degrade the gain of a device, affect timing characteristics, and, in some cases, result in complete functional failure. The total accumulated dose depends on the orbit and time. In LEO, the main source of radiation is from electrons and protons (inner belt) and in GEO, the primary source is from electrons (outer belt) and solar protons. It is worth noting that device shielding can be used to effectively reduce the accumulation of TID radiation. SEEs are caused by a single, high energy particle passing through a device and injecting a charge in the circuit. Typically, SEEs are divided into soft errors and hard errors. The Joint Electron Device Engineering Council (JEDEC) defines soft errors as nondestructive, functional errors induced by energetic ion strikes. Soft errors are a subset of SEEs and includes single event upsets (SEUs), multiple-bit upsets (MBUs), single event functional interrupts (SEFIs), single event transients (SETs), and single event latch-up (SEL). A SEL is where the formation of parasitic bipolar action in CMOS wells induces a low impedance path between power and ground, producing a high current condition. Therefore, a SEL can cause latent and hard errors. Examples of soft errors would be bit flips or changes in the state of memory cells or registers. A SET is a transient voltage pulse generated by a charge injected into the device from a high energy particle. These transient pulses can cause SEFIs. SEFIs are soft errors that cause the component to reset, lock-up, or otherwise malfunction in a detectable way, but does not require power cycling of the device to restore operability. A SEFI is often associated with an upset in a control bit or register. JEDEC defines a hard error as an irreversible change in operation that is typically associated with permanent damage to one or more elements of a device or circuit (for example, gate oxide rupture, or destructive latch-up events). The error is hard because the data is lost and the component or device no longer functions properly, even with a power reset. SEE hard errors are potentially destructive. Examples of hard errors are single event latch-up (SEL), single event gate rupture (SEGR), and single event burnout (SEB). SEEs hard errors can destroy the device, drag down the bus voltage, or even damage the system power supply. Technology Trends and Radiation Effects In terms of the satellite payload, instruments are becoming more complex. At one time communication satellites were basically bent pipe repeater architectures that would relay signals. Today they are multibeam and have on-board processing (OBP) architectures. More complex electronics translate into greater risk from radiation effects. High volume, small satellite constellations are using more commercial grade plastic components. Commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) devices generally tend to be more sensitive to radiation effects. Also with small satellite, there is less structural mass shielding the electronics. With finer IC geometries and thinner oxides, the sensitivity to TID radiation effects is reduced, and the TID tolerance is improved. On the other hand, SEEs increase with reduced IC scaling. Less energy is required to produce SET and SEU. With higher frequency devices, SETs can turn into more SEUs, increasing the number of SEFIs. Mitigation techniques used to address higher speed transient signals can be more challenging. Analog Devices’ Efforts in Support of Space Level Applications The space products group leverages Analog Devices’ portfolio of devices in the support of the space industry. We have proprietary silicon on insulator (SOI) processes that provide radiation tolerance for space level applications. In some cases we modify core silicon to enhance the radiation tolerance of devices. We also have the ability to port designs over to radiation hardened SOI processes. We integrate the die into hermetic, ceramic packages and characterize the device over the extended military temperature range. We target the development and release of fully qualified, Class S QMLV products using the defense logistics agency (DLA) MIL-PRF 38535 system for monolithic devices, and MIL-PRF 38534 for Class K hybrid and multichip modules. For radiation inspection we currently offer high dose rate (HDR) and low dose rate (LDR) tested models and for new product releases we offer single event effects test data. Analog Devices offers commercial, industrial, enhance products (EPs), automotive, military, and space qualified devices. EP devices are designed to meet mission critical and high reliability applications, primarily in the aerospace and defence market. Other product grades include military grade monolithic devices, multichip modules, QMLQ and QMLH devices, space qualified monolithic devices, and multichip modules designed under military specifications as QMLV and QMLK devices. Analog Devices also offers space qualified Class K die for customers who are developing hybrid or multichip modules solutions. Class K qualified die are offered against standard aerospace data sheets and customer source control drawings. We offer EPs, plastic encapsulated devices designed to meet mission critical requirements, and high reliability application requirements. With customer input, we are initiating a new device product category for space applications that we have defined as enhanced products plus (EP+) devices. Our customers are requiring improvements in size, weight, power, higher performance, wider bandwidths, increased operational frequencies, payload flexibility, and optimized reliability. Spacecraft designers are being pressed to use commercial devices in order to meet high levels of performance in increasingly smaller, lower power, and lower cost spacecraft. The internet in the sky is a good example. It is estimated that 60% of the world’s population does not have access to the internet. To address this market, companies are planning to deploy large constellations of small, low cost satellites circling the Earth that will enable access to a worldwide communication network. Analog Devices is working with customers to define EP+ to address this evolving new market. EPs provide COTS solutions for high reliability applications with no additional cost of custom upscreening. EPs are plastic encapsulated devices released with a military temperature range of –55°C to +125°C. In addition to requiring an extended temperature range, EP customers require devices to be lead free and whisker free. They require devices with a controlled manufacturing baseline, a standalone data sheet, and an EP change notification process. These devices also have an associated V62 vendor item drawing under the defense logistics agency documentation system. Currently released EPs are identified by a special EP suffix and have a separate standalone data sheet. As noted, Analog Devices is also developing a new device concept for space level applications EPs, plus for LEO systems and high altitude applications. We currently support EP+ against source control drawings. ADI would like to offer a standard COTS grade device for space level applications. With the EP+ approach we envision a device somewhere between standard EP devices and military 883-grade devices, providing COTS solutions for space level applications without additional cost of custom upscreening. With the EP+ approach, we can generate COTS devices and provide wafer lot traceability and lot specific radiation inspection data. The key issue is determining the proper balance between reliability and cost as depicted in the curve in Figure 1. The more screening required, the higher the unit cost. In defining this new product category, the current challenge for the satellite industry and for Analog Devices is to define the optimum screening level vs. cost point for commercial devices used in space level applications. Figure 1. Reliability test and inspections drive electronic component cost. To summarize—Analog Devices’ goal is to deliver a complete product for space level applications and not just a component. We offer the industry’s most comprehensive portfolio with industry-leading device reliability We provide single lot date code procurement Advanced packaging and characterization to meet harsh environmental challenges Gold and tin lead hot solder dip lead finishes to address tin whiskers We provide no prohibited materials certification Comprehensive certificates of conformance with material traceability Comprehensive QMLV flight unit test reports Electrical performance is production tested over the extended temperature ranges –55°C to +125°C We offer fully qualified QMLV devices with 100% screening and quality conformance inspection We provide radiation qualified devices … HDR, LDR, SEE Long product life cycles are a cornerstone of ADI’s business strategy We have a dedicated aerospace and defense team for product support and applications support Analog Devices currently offers over 90 standard generic space qualified devices with greater than 350 models in different grades and packages. A few of the new featured space qualified products are the ADA4084-2S, ADA4610-2S, and ADuM7442S devices. The 5962R1324501VXA (ADA4084AF/QMLR) is a new low noise, low power, space qualified precision amplifier offered as QMLV space qualified device available against a SMD drawing. The device has 10 MHz unity-gain bandwidth and rail-to-rail inputs and outputs. These amplifiers are excellent for single-supply applications requiring both ac and precision dc performance. The 5962R1420701VXA (ADA4610-2BF/QMLR) are space qualified, dual-channel, precision, very low noise, low input bias current wide bandwidth JFET devices. The amplifiers are especially suited for high impedance sensor amplification and precise current measurements. The ADuM7442R703F is a space qualified 25 Mbps, quad-channel digital isolator with three forward and one reverse channel. The devices offer bidirectional communications. The space qualified devices offer galvanic isolation, which means that the input and output circuits have no direct electrical connection. They offer advantages in size, weight, power, and reliability over competing solutions.                             Analog and Digital Circuits Analog Electronics Most of the fundamental electronic components -- resistors, capacitors, inductors, diodes, transistors, and operational amplifiers -- are all inherently analog. Circuits built with a combination of solely these components are usually analog. Analog circuits are usually complex combinations of op amps, resistors, caps, and other foundational electronic components. This is an example of a class B analog audio amplifier. Analog circuits can be very elegant designs with many components, or they can be very simple, like two resistors combining to make a voltage divider. In general, though, analog circuits are much more difficult to design than those which accomplish the same task digitally. It takes a special kind of analog circuit wizard to design an analog radio receiver, or an analog battery charger; digital components exist to make those designs much simpler. Analog circuits are usually much more susceptible to noise (small, undesired variations in voltage). Small changes in the voltage level of an analog signal may produce significant errors when being processed. Digital Electronics Digital circuits operate using digital, discrete signals. These circuits are usually made of a combination of transistors and logic gates and, at higher levels, microcontrollers or other computing chips. Most processors, whether they're big beefy processors in your computer, or tiny little microcontrollers, operate in the digital realm. Digital circuits make use of components like logic gates, or more complicated digital ICs (usually represented by rectangles with labeled pins extending from them). Digital circuits usually use a binary scheme for digital signaling. These systems assign two different voltages as two different logic levels -- a high voltage (usually 5V, 3.3V, or 1.8V) represents one value and a low voltage (usually 0V) represents the other. Although digital circuits are generally easier to design, they do tend to be a bit more expensive than an equally tasked analog circuit. Analog and Digital Combined It's not rare to see a mixture of analog and digital components in a circuit. Although microcontrollers are usually digital beasts, they often have internal circuitry which enables them to interface with analog circuitry (analog-to-digital converters, pulse-width modulation, and digital-to-analog converters. An analog-to-digital converter (ADC) allows a microcontroller to connect to an analog sensor (like photocells or temperature sensors), to read in an analog voltage. The less common digital-to-analog converter allows a microcontroller to produce analog voltages, which is handy when it needs to make sound.                            Resources and Going Further Now that you know the difference between analog and digital signals, we'd suggest checking out the Analog to Digital Conversion tutorial. Working with microcontrollers, or really any logic-based electronics, means working in the digital realm most of the time. If you want to sense light, temperature, or interface a microcontroller with a variety of other analog sensors, you'll need to know how to convert the analog voltage they produce into a digital value. Also, consider reading our Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) tutorial. PWM is a trick microcontrollers can use to make a digital signal appear to be analog. Here are some other subjects which deal heavily with digital interfaces: Binary Logic Levels Serial Communication SPI Communication I2C Communication IR Communication Or, if you'd like to delve further into the analog realm, consider checking out subject : Voltage Dividers Resistors Diodes Capacitors Transistors                 electronic reliability in space Components for new space systems must still meet requirements for radiation tolerance and electrical, thermal, and mechanical reliability. However, a new class of space-plastic–grade ICs can provide cost and size benefits compared to traditional “full space” components for lower-altitude missions. For the next 40-plus years, the consequences of losing any spacecraft to electronics failure were generally catastrophic. It goes without saying that manned space missions have always carried the highest priority for safety to protect their priceless passengers. But the costs of building unmanned satellites soared into the hundreds of millions of dollars, even exceeding the billion-dollar level for advanced government satellite programs. Satellites became critical to many facets of everyday life: for television viewing, weather forecasting, navigation, and, of course, military uses. The cost of launching was so high that only a few countries could afford the endeavor. With such astronomical (pun intended) consequences of failure, government spaceflight organizations and spacecraft manufacturers created requirements and standards to ensure the robustness of electronic components in space. You may hear spacecraft engineers refer to such components as triple-E parts, which is shorthand for electrical, electronic, and electromechanical components. Manufacturers typically implemented specifications by creating device-specific source control drawings (SCDs), which focused on testing integrated circuits (ICs) for radiation performance, operating life, thermal performance, and mechanical resistance to forces endured during launch. A common mission profile for SCDs was based on 15 years of operation in geosynchronous Earth orbit (GEO), approximately 36,000 km above Earth. That’s quite a change from those first rockets, which flew just above 100 km for only a few minutes! Mil standards By 1995, the U.S. government (namely, the Department of Defense) had released the MIL-PRF-38535 standard, which created consistent qualification, testing, and reliability standards for military and space ICs. MIL-PRF-38535 defines requirements for IC manufacturers if they wish to be listed on a qualified manufacturer list (QML), along with requirements for ICs to qualify to specific classes. Classes M, N, and Q are intended for terrestrial applications, while Class V is defined for space applications, requiring hermetically sealed packaging. Class V devices are typically tested for radiation tolerance during development and are not radiation-tested in production. MIL-PRF-38535 defines an additional quality level — radiation hardness assured (RHA) — that requires the screening of each production lot of an IC to meet a specified radiation performance level (more on radiation performance in a minute). Radiation-tolerant ICs that meet QML Class V requirements are often referred to as QMLV devices, while devices that also meet the RHA specifications are called QMLV-RHA or, simply, RHA. In 2012, MIL-PRF-38535 was revised to add a Class Y, covering non-hermetically sealed, high-pin-count land-grid-array– and column-grid-array–packaged devices. Since the creation of the QMLV designation, designers of high-value, mission-critical spacecraft have come to rely on QMLV and RHA ICs to ensure mission success. The high level of quality and reliability of these components results in a higher cost, but in the intended application, the cost can be justified due to the level of risk mitigation needed. Cost factors In recent years, changes in a number of factors have combined to reduce the cost of access to space. Both scientific and commercial organizations have shown that lower-cost small satellites (smallsats) can also be of value alongside the traditional “big birds” deployed for long-life missions. Smallsats in low Earth orbit (LEO) have provided useful data on a variety of scientific Earth observation missions, with mission lives as short as a week. It is now possible for researchers, entrepreneurs, and students to get a smallsat into LEO at a relatively low cost. Commercial launch operators also offer “ride-sharing” for smallsats on launches in which the primary mission is for a larger satellite. NASA and its commercial partners deliver smallsats to the International Space Station (ISS) aboard re-supply missions, wherein the satellites are then deployed into space by astronauts living onboard the ISS. This new array of satellite missions has given rise to a much wider variation in risk tolerance and cost sensitivity compared to traditional missions. Engineers designing smallsats for LEO missions with shorter mission durations and lower-cost targets have begun to use commercial-off-the-shelf (COTS) ICs, which receive no special screening from manufacturers to address the hazards of spaceflight. These COTS ICs are encapsulated in plastic packaging, which reduces their size compared to the hermetically sealed ceramic packages of space-grade components, and have electrical performance benefits. However, the use of COTS components can expose a mission to significant risks, and selecting, screening, and testing ICs to mitigate these risks can end up costing many times more than the ICs themselves. Another term used to refer to plastic-packaged ICs used in space is plastic encapsulated microcircuits (PEMs). PEMs may be COTS or specially screened or tested. There has also been interest in using automotive-qualified, or AEC-Q100 (“Q1” for short), grade parts in space. While these devices receive additional testing and qualification compared to commercial ICs, these tests are focused more on the terrestrial environment than the extreme environment of space. The use of COTS and Q1 ICs can also require compromises in system design and operational readiness when the radiation hardness and other reliability factors of the components are not well-controlled. Due to the desire for ICs to deliver the necessary quality and reliability for shorter, lower-altitude missions at a lower cost point compared to QMLV devices, a number of IC suppliers have introduced new grades of IC, which fit between COTS and space grade (QMLV) from a cost perspective. These “new space” or “space plastic” ICs use plastic packaging but undergo significant additional testing and qualification compared to COTS and Q1 devices. Fig. 1compares COTS and Q1 ICs to high-reliability parts. Fig. 1: Comparison of different reliability grades from Texas Instruments. Next, We’ll discuss the risks of COTS and Q1 ICs in space and how the enhanced quality and reliability of space plastic ICs can enable success for shorter LEO smallsat missions. Radiation The tragic story of Telsat underscored the need to address radiation performance in space-borne electronics. If you don’t have (or plan to get) a Ph.D. in nuclear physics, you can use a couple of analogies to understand radiation effects on electronics. I’ll categorize effects into two primary categories: total dose effects and single-event effects (SEEs). Consider total dose effects analogous to sunburn: The longer a spacecraft is in space and the farther it is from Earth, the higher the total dose received and the resulting sunburn. Engineers quantify radiation effects like this as total ionizing dose (TID), measured in units of kilorads (krad). SEEs are more like a lightning strike: The probability of an occurrence at any moment is low, but the longer a spacecraft is out in the “thunderstorm” of space, the more likely it is to be struck by a highly energetic particle that can cause failure. The sensitivity of an electronic component to SEEs is measured as a quantity called linear energy transfer, which is the energy transferred from a particle to a substance measured in units of MeV∙cm2/mg. A particular type of SEE that designers are particularly concerned with is single-event latchup (SEL), which is a high-current condition that can destroy an IC quickly. We can “thank our lucky stars” that Earth’s magnetic field protects our earthbound electronics and delicate bodies from the harsh radiation environment of space. Traditional space-grade (QMLV and RHA) ICs have been designed, qualified, and tested to meet all specifications to TID levels as high as 1 Megarad (Mrad). For the sake of comparison, an unshielded satellite in GEO could absorb a TID of over 20 Mrad in just one year. In practice, shielding satellites can drastically reduce the dosage, but long-life GEO missions typically look for ICs with ratings of at least 100 krad. In contrast, the same unshielded satellite in LEO would absorb only about 100 krad in a year. While smallsats in LEO cannot typically support heavy shielding, the shorter mission profiles mean that TID requirements of 10–30 krad are often sufficient for these applications. Beyond defining the necessary radiation tolerance level, there are two primary challenges when trying to use a COTS IC for spaceflight: measuring the device’s radiation tolerance and potential variation in that tolerance. Testing ICs for radiation tolerance can be an expensive and time-consuming process due to the specialized radiation test equipment required. For SEE testing, there are only two cyclotrons in the entire U.S. with the heavy-ion beam capability to test devices for spaceflight cost-effectively. Sometimes, engineers can find radiation test data from academic studies or third-party testing. Such test data may be less accurate than testing by an IC manufacturer. Plus, researchers and third parties typically don’t have access to hidden test modes and may not fully understand the proper operation, specifications, and testing of the device. Second, the lot-to-lot variation of the radiation tolerance of an IC can be huge. It has been shown numerous times that the radiation performance of a particular IC can vary greatly from one wafer fabrication lot to another. Today’s high-volume semiconductor wafer fabs are great at controlling electrical parameters but do not control for radiation performance. For example, National Semiconductor’s space-grade LM108 operational amplifier could produce a lot rated to 100 krad one month and have another lot fail at 30 krad the next month. For this reason, radiation lot acceptance testing (RLAT) has been a fundamental pillar of manufacturing ICs for space since the days of SCDs. COTS ICs, even within a single reel, can come from different wafer lots, even different wafer fab factories, yielding drastic swings in radiation tolerance. Flexibility in wafer supply is a benefit for commercial applications but a risk for space missions. Space-plastic–grade components will go through at least one-time radiation testing by the manufacturer to ensure the validity of the radiation performance and eliminate ICs unsuitable for spaceflight. The TID specification varies by manufacturer but typically targets a TID of 30 krad and single-event latchup immunity to 40 MeV∙cm2/mg, in line with radiation levels within LEO. Texas Instruments’ space-enhanced product line goes the extra mile by undergoing RLAT to 20-krad TID in every production lot, in addition to a one-time characterization to 30 krad. In addition, space plastic products are manufactured within a single controlled baseline, which means one wafer fab, one assembly site, and one material set, and greatly reduces sources of variability. Mechanical and thermal concerns In the extreme environment of space, electronic systems are subjected to extreme temperatures and associated thermal cycles, which cause mechanical stress on ICs and their packages. In LEO, satellites orbit the earth at least 12 times a day, passing from the extreme heat of direct sunlight to the extreme cold of darkness in space. This can result in thermal gradients of over 3°C (5.5°F) per minute, even inside the relatively temperature-controlled internal volume of a spacecraft. Components can be subjected to temperatures as low as –55°C (–67°F) and as high as 125°C (257°F). These thermal conditions can induce a number of different failure modes, including package and die cracking, bond-wire breakage, moisture ingress, die delamination, tin whisker growth, and solder-joint failure. Low-cost packaging materials used in COTS components are susceptible to all of these failures, while space plastic ICs utilize enhanced-reliability material sets and undergo specialized testing to ensure robustness. Because of the reliability concerns associated with lead (Pb)-free solder, the military and aerospace industries have been allowed to continue using tin-lead (SnPb) solder. When a typical commercial Pb-free solder ball is combined with SnPb solder, reflow temperature mismatch and insufficient mixing of the two types of solder can create voiding and a solder joint too fragile to withstand board- and system-level temperature cycling and vibration. For ball-grid-array (BGA) packages in space-plastic–grade ICs, SnPb solder balls are used to eliminate the risk of incompatibility within the SnPb solder profile. Typical commercial ICs are tested only under thermal/moisture testing such as temperature cycling and highly accelerated stress testing (HAST) at the time of development, whereas space plastic ICs typically undergo temperature cycle and HAST lot acceptance continuously throughout production. This practice ensures that any anomalies in package performance can be contained before reaching the customer. It is possible to select packaging materials like die attach epoxy, mold compound, leadframe, and bond wire for robustness. Typically, formulations of die attach and mold compounds are proprietary to the manufacturer, but there are clear variations across the industry. Space plastic IC makers should select the highest-performing compounds regardless of cost. A failure mode of particular concern in harsh environments is delamination, wherein the silicon die separates from the package leadframe, and can lead to performance degradation or, in extreme cases, all-out failure of the die. IC package leadframes can have varying performance with respect to cracking and die delamination. One well-studied technique to improve resistance to die delamination is roughening. This increases the adhesion of the die to the leadframe in conjunction with the correct die attach compound. Roughening adds cost to leadframe manufacturing and, therefore, is not commonly used in the manufacturing of COTS ICs, but it is standard practice for space plastic ICs. Bond wires can also be a source of failure for ICs in spaceflight. While copper (Cu) bond wire is well-proven in multiple terrestrial applications, and ongoing process improvements have resulted in increased uniformity and improved overall field defect parts per million, spacecraft manufacturers and government organizations still have concerns about the use of Cu wire in space components. A few key issues identified with Cu wire bonds are: Bond integrity issues with Cu wire bonding to aluminum bond pads Corrosion due to mold compound interaction or moisture ingress Bond-wire neck breaks due to coefficient of thermal expansion mismatch during temperature cycling While many COTS ICs are manufactured with low-cost Cu wire, space plastic components are manufactured with gold wire, which has been proven in high-reliability applications. Tin (Sn) whisker growth is a widely studied phenomenon in the aerospace industry and can be observed in ICs in leaded packages that have an Sn-based lead finish. Space plastic IC makers ensure that matte-Sn and other high-Sn content lead finishes are not used on such components. For BGA packages, many commercial IC manufacturers moved to high-Sn content solder in order to eliminate Pb-based solder balls, which is a government requirement for commercial applications. Outgassing Outgassing is the release of gas from any material and has been demonstrated in numerous mold compounds used in plastic IC packaging. While this phenomenon has not typically been an issue for terrestrial applications, it can be of particular concern in space. The vacuum environment of space can increase the amount of outgassing compared to atmospheric conditions on Earth. Furthermore, in spacecraft, gases released from IC packages and other sources can condense during extreme cold, creating reduced image quality on optical sensors or other moisture-related failures. NASA began testing materials for outgassing in 1967 and developed the American Society for Testing and Materials E595 specification, which requires that collected volatile condensable materials are less than 0.1% and the total mass loss is less than 1% after vacuum testing. In order to eliminate risk from outgassing in space applications, space plastic ICs use low-outgassing mold compounds that meet NASA requirements. Summary Efforts to ensure the quality and reliability of electronics in spacecraft have continued to evolve since the initial failure of Telstar. The evolution of the spaceflight industry has recently created an opportunity to use electronic components without the full testing and qualification of traditional QMLV components. However, components for these new space systems must still meet mission requirements for radiation tolerance and electrical, thermal, and mechanical reliability. The new class of space-plastic–grade ICs can provide cost and size benefits compared to traditional “full space” components while still contributing to the success of shorter, lower-altitude missions. Space Is Opening Up for Electronics Design This Special Project on Space Electronics seeks to help make the opportunities in space electronics more accessible by introducing these technologies and design experiences. It starts by discussing the trends and opportunities from this new era in space electronics. It then goes on to provide insights into the design challenges, best practices, tools, and components of electronics design for a space environment. A new era in Space Electronics The development of reusable rockets is lowering barriers to both scientific and commercial exploration of space, stimulating increasing interest and investment in space electronics. This Special Project provides designers with a look at the technologies and design practices needed for creating space-worthy electronic designs. These may include, but not be limited to ICs, ASICs, flex-cable, connectors, thermal management for electronics, Rad hard techniques, space-related testing methods, Apollo 1960s electronics and more. EMC in space: The James Webb space telescope Testing for EMC on a spacecraft isn't unlike testing for terrestrial equipment, except for the fact that spacecrafts live in a different electromagnetic environment. The convergence of traditional and new space electronics solutions A hybrid approach allows a design team to implement a rad-hard functional base in conjunction with the latest state-of-the-art COTS technologies. AI and Machine Learning: Shaking up the space industry Today’s increasingly ambitious mission requirements are demanding higher levels of autonomy and greater navigational precision from spacecraft, requiring more than logic-based AI. High-precision space navigation to small comets and asteroids; entry, descent and landing (EDL) on moons and planets; and, rendezvous and proximity operations (RPO) with both cooperative and uncooperative targets all need sensing and perception capabilities provided by vision-based systems. Changing trends in designing space electronics Space electronics has moved-on considerably from the bespoke, radiation-hardened guidance computer and hand-woven memories used on the Apollo missions. Today's avionics are millions of times more powerful than that used to land man on the moon! Safe and Affordable Space Travel Starts With Sourcing Commercial space tourism is on the rise, at a fraction of its predecessor’s cost, creating a cause for passenger safety concerns. One crucial aspect of space flight safety is radiation shielding and mitigation, which New Space ventures have not thoroughly addressed in the past. Traditional space radiation mitigation strategies are costly, yet New Space mitigation techniques may not be suitable for safety critical missions. A solution to this cost-safety tradeoff is Sub-QML hardware electronic devices, which are radiation-hardened by design, yet available at a lower price point due to reduced screening levels. Mission Critical Space Flight Systems Stay Rad Hard To understand the effects of radiation on electronic systems and components, we explore the effects of various space radiation environments and their impact on commercial “New Space” Decrease time to market and cost for the newspace market by using radiation-tolerant solutions based on COTS devices ATmegaS64M1 MCU allows customers to begin development with a commercial device before moving to a pinout compatible, qualified radiation-tolerant version                              Developing radiation-hardened systems for space applications has a history of long lead times and high costs to achieve the highest level of reliability for multi-year missions in a harsh environment.  NewSpace and other critical aerospace applications require faster development and reduced costs. To meet these needs, a new microcontroller (MCU) that combines specified radiation performance with low-cost development associated with Commercial Off-The-Shelf (COTS) devices is now available from Microchip Technology Inc. (NASDAQ: MCHP). The ATmegaS64M1 is the second 8-bit megaAVR® MCU from Microchip that uses a development approach called COTS-to-radiation-tolerant. This approach takes a proven automotive-qualified device, the ATmega64M1 in this case, and creates pinout compatible versions in both high-reliability plastic and space-grade ceramic packages. The devices are designed to meet radiation tolerances with the following targeted performances: Fully immune from Single-Event Latchup (SEL) up to 62 MeV.cm²/mg No Single-Event Functional Interrupts (SEFI) which secure memory integrity Accumulated Total Ionizing Dose (TID) between 20 to 50 Krad(Si) Single Event Upset (SEU) characterization for all functional blocks The new device joins the ATmegaS128, a radiation-tolerant MCU that has already been designed into several critical space missions including a Mars exploration plus a megaconstellation of several hundred Low Earth Orbit (LEO) satellites. The ATmega64M1 COTS device, along with its full development toolchain including development kits and code configurator, can be used to begin development of hardware, firmware and software. When the final system is ready for the prototype phase or production, the COTS device can be replaced with a pin-out compatible, radiation-tolerant version in a 32-lead ceramic package (QFP32) with the same functionality as the original device. This leads to significant cost savings while also reducing development time and risk. “Our COTS-to-radiation-tolerant approach results in a no-compromise, space-grade component and not merely an up-screened or enhanced device that’s targeted to the aerospace industry,” said Patrick Sauvage, director of Microchip’s aerospace business unit. “Developing with a COTS device that can be swapped out for a fully functional high-rel plastic or ceramic equivalent with the same pinout reduces development time, costs and risk for our customers.” The ATmegaS64M1 meets the high operating temperature range of -55° C to +125° C. It is the first COTS-to-radiation-tolerant MCU to combine a Controller Area Network (CAN) bus, Digital-to-Analog Converter (DAC) and motor control capabilities. These features make it ideal for a variety of subsystems like remote terminal controllers and data handling functions for satellites, constellations, launchers or critical avionic applications. For more information visit www.microchip.com/ATmegaS64M1. Development Support To ease the design process and accelerate time to market, Microchip offers the STK 600 complete development board for the ATmegaS64M1, giving designers a quick start to develop code with advanced features for prototyping and testing new designs. The device is supported by Atmel Studio Integrated Development Environment (IDE) for developing, debugging and software libraries. Availability and Packaging The devices are available today for sampling and volume production in four derivatives: ATmegaS64M1-KH-E in ceramic prototype QFP32 package ATmegaS64M1-KH-MQ, ceramic space-grade QFP32 package, QMLQ qualified ATmegaS64M1-KH-SV, ceramic space-grade QFP32 package, QMLV qualified  ATmegaS64M1-MD-HP in plastic QFP32 package, AQEC high reliability qualified for volume program .          COTS Arm Core MCUs deliver quick prototyping for space applications Microchip’s COTS-to-radiation–tolerant and radiation-hardened Arm Core MCUs enable designers to start prototyping faster and at a lower cost . Microchip Technology Inc. has launched the space industry’s first Arm-based microcontrollers (MCUs) that combine the benefits of commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) technology with space-qualified versions that have scalable levels of radiation performance. This allows designers to start prototyping with a commercial device before moving to a radiation-qualified version, which cuts development time and cost. The new SAMV71Q21RT radiation-tolerant and SAMRH71 radiation-hardened MCUs are based on the automotive-qualified SAMV71 and implement the Arm Cortex-M7 system-on-chip (SoC). This enables more integration, cost reduction, and higher performance in space systems, said Microchip. Software developers can start their designs with a lower-cost COTS SAMV71 device before moving to a space-grade component. Both COTS devices use the same software development toolchain, including software libraries, board support package (BSP), and operating system (OS) first level of porting. All software development can be swapped out to a radiation-tolerant or radiation-hardened version in a high-reliability plastic package or space-grade ceramic package. Microchip said that the SAMV71Q21RT radiation-tolerant MCU reuses the full COTS mask set and offers pinout compatibility, so designers can quickly scale from COTS to qualified space parts.              The SAMV71Q21RT can be used in NewSpace applications such as low earth orbit (LEO) satellite constellations and robotics. The SAMV71Q21RT ensures an accumulated TID of 30 Krad (Si) with latchup immunity and is nondestructive against heavy ions. The SAMRH71 radiation-hardened MCU is designed for more critical sub-systems like gyroscopes and star tracker equipment and deep-space applications. It also features dedicated SpaceWire and MIL-STD-1553 interfaces for control and high-speed data management up to 200 Mbits/s. Radiation performance includes: Accumulated TID of more than 100 Krad (Si) No Single Event Upset (SEU) Linear Energy Transfer (LET) up to 20 MeV.cm²/mg, without system mitigation Designed for No Single-Event Functional Interrupts (SEFI), which secures all memories’ integrity Both devices are fully immune to Single-Event Latchup (SEL) up to 62 MeV.cm²/mg. Other key features include fault management and data integrity features such as error-correcting code (ECC) memory, integrity check monitor (ICM), and memory protection unit (MPU), as well as CAN FD and Ethernet AVB/TSN connectivity. An evaluation board (ATSAMV71-XULT) is available. Designers can use the Atmel Studio Integrated Development Environment (IDE) for developing, debugging, and software libraries. Both devices will also be supported in MPLAB Harmony version 3.0 by mid-2019. Sampling is available for the SAMRH71 in a CQFP256 ceramic package, while the SAMV71Q21RT is available in volume-production quantities in four derivatives: SAMV71Q21RT-DHB-E in ceramic prototype QFP144 package  SAMV71Q21RT-DHB-MQ in ceramic space-grade QFP144 package, QMLQ equivalent SAMV71Q21RT-DHB-SV in ceramic space-grade QFP144 package, QMLV equivalent SAMV71Q21RT-DHB-MQ in plastic QFP144 package, AQEC high reliability qualified Intersil’s new radiation-tolerant plastic ICs to power                                     Small satellite mega-constellations Intersil, a subsidiary of Renesas Electronics Corporation (TSE: 6723), announced the first three members of its new family of radiation-tolerant plastic-package ICs designed to support the emerging field of small satellites that will provide solutions such as high-speed Internet connections to hundreds of millions of users in communities, governments, and businesses worldwide. Fleets of hundreds of small satellites will create mega-constellation networks to deliver broadband Internet links from low Earth orbit (LEO) to every corner of the globe, including rural areas without wireless connectivity access. Intersil’s rad-tolerant plastic parts include the ISL71026M 3.3V controller area network (CAN) transceiver, ISL71444M 40V quad precision rail-to-rail input and output (RRIO) op amp, and the ISL71001M 6A point-of-load (POL) voltage regulator. These ICs deliver rad-tolerance performance at a much lower cost point versus radiation assurance tested Class V (space level) products. All three ISL71xxxM devices go through characterization testing, which includes total ionizing doze (TID) up to 30krads (Si) for single event effects (SEE). SEE take into account single event burnout (SEB), single event latch-up (SEL), single event transients (SETs) and single event functional interrupts (SEFIs) at a linear energy transfer (LET) of 43MeV•cm2/mg. Intersil’s rad-tolerant plastic packaging flow leverages the company’s more than 50 years of spaceflight experience developing rad hard (>75krad) and rad-tolerant (<75krad) products for extremely harsh environments. The upfront radiation effects characterization and AEC-Q100 automotive-like qualification gives customers the utmost confidence to design Intersil radiation-tolerant plastic parts into cost-sensitive small satellites for LEO mission profiles up to five-years. The ISL71xxxM are also well suited for high altitude (>40km) avionic systems, launch vehicles that are prone to heavy ions, and medical equipment where radiation is a concern. “The short mission life of small satellites and less stringent low earth orbit is driving the trend toward low-cost commercial off the shelf (COTS) ICs, but not without costly upscreening and spaceflight reliability issues,” said Philip Chesley, Intersil’s vice president of Industrial Analog and Power products. “Intersil’s cost effective, radiation-tolerant plastic ICs overcome the reliability issues and hidden costs of COTS, giving satellite manufacturers the confidence and mission success assurance to launch and operate mega-constellations.” The ISL71026M radiation-tolerant 3.3V CAN transceiver provides serial data transmission at speeds up to 1Mbps. Up to 120 transceivers can be connected to a single CAN bus to reduce cabling/harness size, weight and power (SWAP) costs for satellite command and telemetry systems. Key Features and Specifications of ISL71026M ·        Operates at input voltage range from 3V to 3.6V ·        Quiescent supply current: 7mA (max), Listen mode supply current: 2mA (max) ·        Compliant with ISO 11898-2 physical layer standard ·        Bus fault protection up to ±20V, and loopback/listen mode ·        Cold spare capability: powered down devices/nodes without affecting active devices operating in parallel ·        Characterized radiation-tolerant to 30krad(Si) and SEE at LET = 43MeV•cm2/mg The ISL71444M rad-tolerant quad RRIO op amp provides low power, low offset voltage, and excellent output noise performance. Its SET recovery of <5µs eliminates external filtering. Key Features and Specifications of ISL71444M ·        Wide single and dual supply range from 2.7V to 40V ·        Wide gain bandwidth (GBW) product of 19MHz ·        Very low input offset voltage of 300µV ·        Low current consumption per amplifier of 1.1mA typical, and high slew rate of 60V/µs ·        Characterized radiation-tolerant to 30krad(Si) and SEE at LET = 43MeV•cm2/mg The ISL71001M rad-tolerant 6A synchronous buck regulator with integrated MOSFETs delivers high peak efficiency up to 95%, and steps down 5V and 3.3V primary rails to POL inputs as low as 0.8V for FPGAs, CPLDs, DSPs, CPUs and peripheral I/Os. Key Features and Specifications of ISL71001M ·        Operates at input voltage range from 3V to 5.5V ·        Tightly regulated output voltage externally adjustable from 0.8V to 85% of Vin ·        Fixed 1MHz switching frequency for reduced filter size ·        +/-1.2% referenced voltage, and compensation free ·        Bidirectional SYNC pin synchronizes two devices 180° out of phase ·        Provides adjustable output voltage, analog soft-start, input/output undervoltage, overcurrent protection, and power-good output voltage monitor ·        Characterized radiation-tolerant to 30krad(Si) and SEE at LET = 43MeV•cm2/mg Intersil space-communications ICs immune to single-event effects   Intersil here today announced a family of radiation-hardened (rad-hard) power-management components designed to withstand the potentially destructive, heavy-ion environment of space. Single-event effects (SEE), as they are known, are becoming an important issue to communications-system designers as the size of power-control devices decreases and demand for bandwidth increases the complexity of spacecraft systems. Up till now, ionizing radiation effects have been mitigated by either part-level hardening or by shielding sensitive electronics, Intersil said. But the nature of SEEs makes shielding the new generation of components less effective. Intersil's new family of rad-hard power management devices takes advantage of the company's dielectrically isolated, hardened-silicon-gate wafer fabrication process. Specifically designed to deliver highly reliable performance in harsh radiation environments, the process has been used to produce ICs vital to integrated communications applications, such as pulse width modulators (PWMs), voltage references, voltage regulators, MOSFET drivers and comparators. "Intersil devices enable the design of satellite electronics systems with greatly enhanced reliability and operability," said Nick van Vonno, senior scientist for Intersil's space and defense product line. "Combining Intersil's power management design expertise with the company's robust rad-hard processes has resulted in the first power management device family hardened to guaranteed high levels of SEE," he added. "This is a strong value proposition, as it is impractical to shield against this environment." Intersil's SEE family includes the Star*Power line that features a series of power management ICs. Several of Intersil's Vulcan DC-DC power conversion modules, as well as the Star*Power Gold family of power MOSFET devices, is also included in the SEE family. The devices are hardened to total ionizing dose levels of 300 krad (Si) and are available in reliable hermetic packages. They are designed for enhanced SEE hardness, with a design objective linear energy transfer (LET) rating of 82 MeV/mg/cm2. SEE hardness is achieved by a combination of hardened processing and specific design techniques such as redundancy and error correction. The Star*Power and Star*Power Gold series both spans six voltage ranges from 30 to 250V. The Star*Power MOSFET devices are optimized for low on-resistance and superior total ionizing dose performance, while the corresponding Gold devices are optimized for low gate charge and superior SEE hardness. The Star*Power DC-DC converter modules offer highly efficient power conversion capability with total dose hardness of 100 krad (Si) and SEE hardness of 82 MeV/mg/cm2. The Intersil Vulcan line of hybrid DC-DC converter modules leverages the Star*Power rad-hard components. These highly efficient converters support a wide range of input and output voltages, reflecting spacecraft design trends towards higher DC bus voltages. The Vulcan modules are rated at 100 krad (Si) total ionizing dose and feature the same SEE hardening to LET values of 82 MeV/mg/cm2.   Chip duo targets power supplies for small satellites  Renesas Electronics claims to have launched the space industry’s first plastic-packaged, radiation-tolerant PWM controller and gallium-nitride (GaN) FET driver for DC/DC power supplies in small satellites (smallsats) and launch vehicles. The chip duo is especially designed for isolated flyback and half-bridge power stages and motor control driver circuits in satellite buses and payloads. The smallsats form large constellations operating in multiple low Earth orbit (LEO) planes and provide global broadband internet links and high-resolution imaging for sea, air, and land asset tracking.                       The ISL71043M PWM controller, which provides fast signal propagation and output switching, features maximum supply current of 5.5 mA, which reduces power loss by more than three times. Moreover, ISL71043M offers the adjustable operating frequency of up to 1 MHz, and that enables higher efficiency and the use of smaller passive filter components. The ISL71040M, a low-side GaN FET driver, ensures reliable operation by precisely controlling the gate driver voltage to +3%/−5% in hostile temperature and radiation environments. The chip’s split outputs adjust the turn-on and turn-off speeds, and its high current source and sink capability enable high-frequency operation. The ISL71040M chip operates with a supply voltage between 4.5 V and 13.2 V, and it includes both inverting and non-inverting inputs. Renesas said that both devices are characterization-tested at a total ionizing doze (TID) of up to 30 krads (Si) and for single-event effects (SEE) at a linear energy transfer (LET) of 43 MeV • cm2/mg. Both devices operate over an extended temperature range of −55°C to 125°C. The ISL71043M PWM controller is available in a small 4 × 5-mm SOIC plastic package, which reduces the PCB area up to 3× compared to competitive ceramic packages. And the ISL71040M radiation-tolerant low-side GaN FET driver is available in an eight-lead 4 × 4-mm TDFN package.        Electronics Rocket into a New Frontier                                           Featured Resources Vishay Super 12 Harsh Environments Technology Figure 1: First Launch of the Orion Crew Vehicle.    With the recent Orion spacecraft test flight, humanity is once again attempting manned spaceflight beyond low Earth orbit (LEO). The test launch marked the first time since the end of the Apollo mission in 1974 that a manned-capable spacecraft had flown so far from our planet. Space exploration technology has changed dramatically since that time, but the dangers that future explorers and their equipment will face has not. Radiation, extreme temperature fluctuations, and intense vibrations at liftoff are just some of factors that engineers must handle when designing electronics to operate in the harsh environment of outer space. Figure 2: Nanosatellite for NASA’s CubeSat Initiative.  While you might think that these are problems of thin tie-wearing engineers, nothing could be further from reality. Today you don’t need a NASA-sized budget to get into space, or at least into near-space. Many makers are engaged in the burgeoning field of amateur space exploration. Science experiments are now routinely tethered to weather balloons, and if you’re really lucky you can get a nanosatellite launched into orbit thanks to NASA’s CubeSat initiative. Regardless of your budget, the operating environment of space travel is tough on electronics. There are numerous design techniques and engineering principles to keep in mind when designing electronics that are meant to operate in space. Before we jump into the details, let’s first get a better understanding of the challenges posed by operating electronics in outer space. The Operating Environment                                     Figure 3: Source of radiation and high-energy particles in space.  Earth’s magnetic field provides a defensive shield that protects us from being inundated by highly energetic particles (protons, electrons, and heavy ions) and radiation. These particles can include cosmic rays that come from beyond our solar system, as well as particles that are ejected from our Sun during Solar Particle Events (SPE). As we move beyond the safety of our planet, these particles increasingly take a toll on sensitive electronics. High-energy particles can affect electronics in multiple ways, and someone has taken the time to categorize them with regard to semiconductors: Single Event Transient: High-energy particle affects a particularly sensitive component resulting in a transient current or voltage spike. Single Event Latchup: Particle strike causes an electrical short between components on an integrated circuit resulting in circuit malfunction, but recovery is possible through a reboot of the affected system. Single Event Burnout: A latch up event that results in the affected device being destroyed. Single Event Upset: Internal build up charge causes a ”bit flip” in a memory or logic device (more about this later.) Displacement Damage: Accumulation of defects to the structure of silicon due to high-energy particle impacts. Total Ionizing Dose: Buildup of positive charges in insulators and oxide over time result in faulty circuit behavior. Thus, various particle events can cause numerous problems that fundamentally alter the operating characteristics of components. Spurious (i.e., “false”) currents can be induced in circuits resulting in incorrect circuit operation. Even worse, microchips can be destroyed due to excess induced power. If enough charge accumulates, bits in a processor or in memory can be flipped, resulting in data corruption. If the corrupted data plays a role in controlling a critical subsystem such as navigation or engine control, it is possible to lose the entire spacecraft. Radiation is just one concern. Extreme variation in temperature can occur over very short time periods, from hundreds of degrees below freezing to hundreds of degrees in the other direction depending on a spacecraft’s orientation and distance from the Sun. If not handled properly, thermal stresses can cause unpredictable circuit behavior at best and catastrophic failure at worst. Space electronics must also handle problems that can occur before a spacecraft ever leaves Earth’s atmosphere. Violent vibrations induced during rocket-assisted launches wreak havoc on components and interconnects if they are not designed to tolerate such extreme forces. Build It Tough Both radiation and temperature extremes require a variety of unique design techniques when building electronics to reliably operate in outer space. At the silicon level, individual components are altered in fundamental ways to provide better resiliency. Other design techniques include redundancy, where additional and/or redundant components, circuits, or entire systems may be employed in the design. Lastly, there are operational considerations to protect onboard electronics. Let’s take a look at some of the design techniques in each category: Special Design Consideration at the Silicon (Component) Level: Component selection is a critical phase of designing a space-based system. There are many differences in the engineering and manufacturing techniques of components that to be considered: “Radiation hardening” is the term given to a variety of design and manufacturing techniques to re-design electronic components (most commonly semiconductor-based components) to be more resilient to exposure to high-energy particles. A common method is to replace the silicon substrate of semiconductors with “silicon-insulator-silicon” substrate (SOI) or a sapphire substrate (silicon-on-sapphire, or SOS). The alternative substrate allows semiconductor components to be very good at curtailing the spread of stray currents to neighboring elements, should one element be struck by a high-energy particle. Other semiconductor design tips you may not know, when designing for operation in space: Bipolar junction transistors are more tolerant of radiation strikes than CMOS circuits in some applications. Replacing dynamic random access memory (DRAM) with static RAM is a design trade-off that is often chosen since SRAM is more tolerant, though at the expense of cost and physical layout size (less memory per unit area). Robust and Redundant Systems: After selecting robust components that can meet the operating requirements, the next key step is to ensure the system as whole is well architected and that interfaces between components are as well designed as the components themselves. Material selection is one key aspect of ensuring good radiation protection for internal systems. Copper and aluminum shielding is an option to protect a spacecraft’s circuitry from certain particles, though this is not effective for higher energy cosmic rays. Lead is another option for shielding. Hamming distance functions and parity bits can be used for memory error detection and correction. The Hamming function is a software-based solution and does add some processing overhead. Modular redundancy techniques such as Triple Modular Redundancy (TMR) is a design topology where redundant copies of the same circuits are used to process the same data inputs. The outputs are then passed to a “majority gate” that compare the outputs from the redundant circuits and decide the correct solution to pass on to systems downstream. This has the advantage of being faster than the Hamming solution as it is done all in hardware. The Data Processing System (DPS) aboard the now defunct U.S. Space Shuttles had five redundant backup systems, one of which ran independently developed software from the rest as a failsafe measure. The use of a watchdog timer is another design technique to detect and recover from a computer glitch. A watchdog timer works by counting down and every so often the main processor resets the watchdog before it reaches zero. Should a main computer glitch occur and the watchdog timer hits zero, the watchdog will generate a reset signal that will restart the main processor and place it into a safe mode before resuming operations. Electromechanical systems are also employed on spacecraft that must contend with high temperatures of the inner solar system before venturing into the cold of the outer solar system. Temperature sensors, when combined with mechanical systems such as louvers, can safely regulate the internal temperature of a spacecraft. While we’ve talked a lot about semiconductor design strategies, it should be worth highlighting that interface between subsystems is another potential issue for spacecraft electronics. Interconnects and cable connectors between systems must also be robust to withstand spacecraft launch and possibly even re-entry.  Repair and maintenance for space stations is also a consideration. Thoughtful design is a part of space operation, possibly learned the hard way. Remember the round and square CO2 scrubbers in Apollo 13? The crew had moved to safety in the Lunar Module that was designed for two people for 36 hours of use, not three people for 96 hours.    Figure 4: Astronaut John Swigert is shown to the right of the square device they hacked together to adapt the square scrubber cartridges to fit that on the Lunar Module, which used round cartridges. And yes, that is duct tape.  We know that purposefully keeping designs consistent and simple can save lives and cost. Most engineers would label a beautifully simple yet very efficient design as “elegant.” Although intended for use on Spaceship Earth, Phoenix Contact’s SUNCLIX Photovoltaic Connectors require no tools to assemble, and would qualify as an “elegant design” for many. Robust, redundant systems are an engineering methodology, but elegant design flows from experience, innate talent, and creativity. Figure 5: Phoenix Contact’s SUNCLIX Photovoltaic Connectors demonstrate elegance in design. (Source: Mouser) Operating Procedures: Lastly, there are methods in operation of spacecraft and associated subsystems to reduce the impact space: Orbit selection is key, as certain orbits will reduce exposure to high-energy particles. Orbits such as those favored by CubeSats can be safe enough such that commercial-off-the-shelf (COTS) components can be used (without radiation hardening.) De-energizing all but the most critical systems before entering into regions of space where high radiation is expected is often employed to preserve onboard systems. Beyond the Final Frontier Outer space is not the only harsh environment where electronics may be installed. There are plenty of harsh operating environments right here on Earth. Consider the following environments: Polar regions: Extremely low temperatures Desert/Rain Forest: High temperature or very humid environments Deep Ocean: High pressure, low temperature Industrial: Chemically corrosive environments Medical: Inside the human body Each environment presents unique operating challenges. From a systems engineering perspective, understanding the operating environment is key in making solid design decisions and considering all potential environmental conditions early in the design process. And don’t assume a one-fits-all-solution will work in every situation. Design issues are complicated by the fact that once launched, the ability to perform maintenance on a spacecraft is very limited, depending on the mission. Thus engineers must employ a multitude of techniques to ensure that systems can handle the countless possible failure scenarios that can be encountered. Thus, radiation hardened components are more expensive than conventional-use, COTS counterparts, even though the hardened components can sometimes technologically trail behind by five or more years. Also consider that while all engineering ventures must strike a balance between cost, schedule, and technical performance, space-based systems must contend with unique scheduling challenges. Certain missions that target particular destinations may have launch windows that are only a few days. Missing a deadline may mean waiting years for another opportunity. In short, design for space missions is not for the timid. To find out more about spacecraft electronics component design and manufacturing (or if you have trouble sleeping), there are years’ worth of U.S. military standards (a.k.a. MIL STD and MIL-SPEC) online at everyspec.com,                    Radiation-hardened space electronics enter the multi-core era The pace of embedded computing technology development is placing pressure on satellite and spacecraft designers, who must deliver reliable systems at low costs.                                     The pace of embedded computing technology development is placing pressure on satellite and spacecraft designers, who must deliver reliable systems at low costs. Space is a dangerous place, especially when it comes to sensitive electronic components like microprocessors, solid-state memory, and network interfaces. The problem is radiation; space has a lot of it, and most modern electronic components were not designed to operate in a radiation environment. Levels of radiation that occur in space can cause a variety of problems for electronic components, ranging from complete burnout to the occasional bit flip that can corrupt some data and render the reliability of even untouched data open to question. There are ways to specially design radiation-hardened electronic parts to resist the effects of radiation, but it's expensive to do this. Moreover, overall demand for rad-hard electronic parts is relatively low, which can drive up their costs even more.            The growing use of space-based electronics for manned spacecraft, satellites, and deep-space probes is putting pressure on the rad-hard community to deliver technology with high performance and low cost. Then there's specially shielded packaging of electronic parts to keep radiation at bay. Not only is this approach expensive, but it also can be heavy enough to adversely influence launch costs. There are other ways of dealing with space radiation, ranging from redundant subsystems, selective shielding, and upscreening commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) electronics for enhanced reliability. Among the challenges of space operations today are balancing electronics costs, capabilities, and reliability such that systems are good enough to operate in specific radiation environments for expected durations to meet mission requirements. Space radiation effects There are several ways that electronic parts designers can radiation-harden their devices. One of the most common is to harden for total-ionizing-dose radiation - or the amount of radiation the device is expected to withstand for its entire life before problems occur. A typical requirement is for 100 kilorads of total-dose radiation hardness. The evolution of today's advanced electronic components, however, also is changing the total-dose picture. Specifically, the shrinking size of circuits on today's most modern chips is lessening their vulnerability to total-dose radiation. "As technology nodes decrease in size - from 90 nanometers to 14 nanometers - total ionizing dose performance naturally improves," says Michelle Mundie, business area director of standard products at rad-hard specialist Cobham Semiconductor Solutions in Colorado Springs, Colo. This phenomenon is a double-edge sword, however, because the steady shrinking of chip geometries also makes these devices even more vulnerable to other kinds of radiation effects, namely single-event upset (SEU) and single-event latchup (SEL). "Single-vent effects like latchup are becoming more of a problem, so we have to design for those effects. "Devices today are more sensitive to radiation at the gate and transistor level."            Curtiss-Wright is providing the company's radiation-tolerant Smart Backplane technology for the European Space Agency's Vega-C expendable space launch rocket. Single-event upset can corrupt data when a radiation-charged particle flips a data bit from a one to a zero, or vice versa, which corrupts data. SEU typically does not physically damage an electronic device, only the data it contains or that flows through it. Single-event latchup, however, can be damaging if it causes a short circuit that triggers thermal runaway. Device designers must consider these potential threats. There are several design approaches to mitigating radiation effects, which include radiation hardening by design, selective shielding, redundancy, and error-checking. One of today's most notable rad-hard by design projects is the High Performance Spaceflight Computing (HPSC) Processor Chiplet program. Rad-hard by design Rad-hard by design involves designing an electronic component from the ground up to resist radiation effects. It can be one of the most expensive and time-consuming approaches, but sometimes it's the only solution for electronic components that are crucial for protecting human lives or safeguarding important orbital and deep-space missions. U.S. government space experts are working with the Boeing Co. to create a new generation of radiation-hardened microprocessors for a wide variety of space applications to provide some of the most advanced processor technologies with broad industry and software support for future space missions. Sponsors of the HPSC project are the U.S. National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) and the U.S. Air Force Research Laboratory at Kirtland Air Force Base, N.M. Industry experts from the Boeing Solid-State Electronics Development segment in Seattle are carrying out the program, based on a $25.9 million contract awarded last March by the NASA Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt, Md.                  Curtiss-Wright is delivering the company's MnACQ-2000 Miniature Network Data Acquisition System, shown above, for the NASA Orion spacecraft and the Space Launch System (SLS). These data-acquisition systems are hardened against the effects of space radiation. The HPSC program is intended to develop rad-hard microprocessor technology that will replace or augment previous generations of rad-hard microprocessors, such as the RAD750 from the BAE Systems Electronic Systems segment in Manassas, Va., and the RH-1750A, RH-32, and Advanced Spaceborne Computer Module (ASCM) from the Honeywell Aerospace segment in Clearwater, Fla. Managing the HPSC project are experts at the NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) in Pasadena, Calif., led by Richard Doyle and Raphael Some. The NASA Goddard Space Flight Center is managing the HPSC contract. The program is developing technologies for a next-generation, general-purpose, multi-core space processor to meet on-board computing needs of future manned spacecraft and space robots. The four-year project is expected to deliver a next-generation, rad-hard space processor based on the ARM processor architecture to provide optimal power-to-performance for upgradeability, software availability, ease of use, and relatively low costs. Although previous generations of rad-hard space processors like the RAD750 have performed well for years, "there are needs now that are well in excess of what that processor can do. Today's radiation-hardened space processors typically are single-processor systems based on existing commercial or military computers. They operate at maximum required throughput, fault tolerance, and power levels. Air Force and NASA space experts, however, say they anticipate future missions that will require an increase in throughput and wider variations in throughput, fault tolerance, and power levels. Commercially developed technology "We're basing this device on commercially developed, well-supported IP, and making sure there is a wide user base and software support - something that is well-supported by industry . Air Force and NASA experts have defined the ARM-based hardware and companion Linaro system software as the HPSC processor baseline architecture. Boeing embedded computing experts will develop a new space processor design that will provide orders of magnitude improvement in performance and performance-to-power ratio as well as the ability dynamically to set the power-throughput-fault tolerance operating point. The HPSC project also will use Radiation Hard by Design (RHBD) standard cell libraries, as well as the ARM A53 processor with its internal NEON single instruction, multiple data (SIMD) design. "You really need the ability to do radiation hardening by design, applied to standard cells, etc., that allow you to use a modern semiconductor process. NASA experts are looking at three broad application areas for the next-generation HPSC microprocessor: vision systems, model-based reasoning for on-board autonomy, and high-rate instrument processing . Vision systems would involve space applications like obstacle avoidance. "We need to process imagery to determine where you should and should not land, and in real time . Model-based reasoning for on-board autonomy could enable spacecraft designers and space mission managers to migrate much of the mission-planning and resource-management tasking to the spacecraft, rather than rely on ground controllers for those jobs. NASA experts also are thinking ahead to future deep-space missions in which ground controllers may not always be in touch with the spacecraft, so must rely on the spacecraft to make some of its own decisions. High-rate instrument processing involves demanding digital signal processing for sensors and instruments like synthetic aperture radar and hyperspectral electro-optical sensors. "We want to migrate some on-board data processing on-board the spacecraft so we can downlink data of interest, rather than just the raw data. In addition, NASA experts are looking to Boeing to develop enabling technologies for a space processor that not only is radiation hardened, but also can manage its own electricity demands to preserve power resources - especially on deep-space missions far from Earth. Aitech offers the E905 three-slot, cold-plate-cooled, space-rated embedded computing enclosure for mission-critical space applications, built on a 3U CompactPCI platform using machined aluminum. Smart power usage A key goal is the ability to trade dynamically between processing throughput, power consumption, and fault tolerance. "We want to be power-aware in our processor, and be able to ramp-down the processor for just what we need. That is kind of missing today . "We are looking for the ability to tailor power, processing, and fault tolerance. Flexibility is one of the key objectives for HPSC." Fault tolerance management middleware will enable the processor to detect and log errors; remove services likely to experience hard failures; respond to uncorrectable errors; and implement n-modular redundancy, checkpoint/rollback, or other high-level fault tolerance. Additional applications for the HPSC processor will include military surveillance and weapons systems, human-rated spacecraft, habitats and vehicles, and robotic science and exploration platforms. System applications range from small satellites to large flagship-class missions. Additional space computing tasks of the HPSC processor will include command and data handling, guidance navigation and control, and communications like software-defined radio; human assist, data representation, and cloud computing; high-rate real-time sensor data processing; and autonomy and science processing. Boeing will provide prototype radiation-hardened, multi-core computing processor Chiplets, system software, and evaluation boards for Chiplet test and characterization. The Chiplets each contain eight general-purpose processing cores in a dual quad-core configuration, and interfaces to memory and peripheral devices. "The period of performance is 45 months, so by late 2020 we're expecting Boeing to provide a processor chip or chiplets, packaged chiplets and bare die, and evaluations boards populated with chiplets to exercise the silicon . "These chiplets will not be space-qualified; the focus of this project is on the silicon."                       Embedded computing companies that specialize in rugged COTS technology are adapting design techniques to provide rad-hard computing for space. Shown above is the Aitech SP0-S enhanced space-qualified 3U CompactPCI single-board computer. System software infrastructure will support real-time operating systems and Unix/Linux parallel processing to support hierarchical fault tolerance ranging from single Chiplet deep-space robotic missions to multi-Chiplet -redundant human spaceflight missions. "We also expect system software, including operating system, compilers, debuggers, a Linux operating system, and a real-time operating system,. The HPSC processor will include Serial RapidIO (SRIO) for high-bandwidth communications, and several interfaces to high-speed, off-chip memory. The SRIO interfaces also can function as advanced microcontroller bus architecture (AMBA)-bus bridges to tile or cascade several processors to increase bandwidth or improve fault tolerance. The SRIO interface also can extend the HPSC processor to other SRIO-enabled processing devices such as field-programmable gate arrays (FPGAs), graphics processing units (GPUs), and in the future to other application-specific integrated circuit (ASIC)-based coprocessors. NASA and the Air Force will consider a flight-qualification program when the HPSC program concludes in late 2020 or early 2021. After that, it's reasonable to assume the technology will be ready for deployment. it"s speculates that HPSC technology could be deployed for at least 10 years before designers must look at a new generation of rad-hard microprocessors. Looking beyond microprocessors Outside the realm of the HPSC program, NASA experts are considering plans for additional radiation-hardened computer components, such as general-purpose graphics processing units (GPGPUs), field-programmable gate arrays (FPGAs), as well as volatile and non-volatile memory. The problem right now is funding. For the HPSC program "we looked at a number of processing architectures, and the biggest bang for the buck was a general-purpose, multi-core processor. For the future, nevertheless, "we have interest in some sort of paring of a general-purpose multicore processor with a rad-hard FPGA or GPGPU. There is interest, but we can't say that we have funding for that, but there's definitely interest. "We're also interested in advancing volatile and non-volatile memory and networking rad-hard technologies . We have interest in developing a rad-hard ecosystem around that HPSC processor." COTS electronics for space While it's true that some space applications require the most expensive radiation-hardening solutions, the reality is that space systems designers must do the best they can to use commercially available electronic components for space applications. Often this approach involves taking a hard look at whether the intended application is life- or mission-critical, the expected severity of the radiation environment in which the overall system will operate, and the duration of the planned mission, and then designing a radiation-tolerant system that's good enough. Low-Earth orbit (LEO), for example, does not experience the same radiation levels that higher orbits or deep-space have. A growing number of LEO satellite applications today, moreover, have relatively limited life cycles. Some Earth-observation projects, in fact, are expected to last for less than five years. "There's a push to put a lot more hardware on LEO orbits lasting from three to five years for space observation," says George Romaniuk, director of space product management at Aitech Defense Systems Inc. in Chatsworth, Calif. "The orbit is low, so the requirements are not that stringent. On the other hand, we see groups that will be for lunar or asteroid exploration beyond Earth orbit. They want to stay for a very, very long time (18 years, minimum) so the market is starting to segment." Applications in lower-Earth orbits that may be of relatively short durations - and that could tolerate the occasional data upset - are a particularly promising market for COTS electronics suppliers, particularly for cost-sensitive applications like small satellites. "Our lives are basically lives of compromise," Romaniuk says. "We may not have $7 million to create something nice, but we have to piece together things that will provide performance and reliability." Cobham has specialized for decades in selecting commercially developed electronic parts that are appropriate for some space applications. The company uses upscreening and a variety of other testing. The company started their rad-hard upscreening business about 20 years ago with a focus on solid-state memory, and now is expanding into microcontrollers and mixed-signal analog products. "With changing market pressures from the small satellite industry, and the drive to smaller device sizes, a lot of the space market is looking at flying at COTS products," says Cobham's Mundie. "We knew the need was there, and our focus is changing to ensure we are offering our right products to the industry. It is a challenge for us to identify COTS products that will work in a variety of applications." Cobham is using upscreening technologies and years of knowledge to create a radiation-hardened CAN bus network interface. Multi-core redundancy Some technological developments in the COTS computing industry are providing serendipitous advantages for space systems designers. Not only are deeply submicron geometries naturally resistant to total-ionizing-dose radiation, but modern multicore processor architectures also offer opportunities for system redundancy. Embedded computing designers at the Curtiss-Wright Corp. Defense Solutions Division in Ashburn, Va., are using multi-core processors not to block radiation-induced single-event effects, but to recover gracefully without system disruption when upsets occur. "Where we are now using multi- core processors to speed up com- puting, we also can use that to our advantage by running the same code in multiple cores," says Paul Hart, chief technology officer and technical fellow of avionics and electronics at the Curtiss-Wright office in Christchurch, England. "We run main code in one core, and duplicate code in another core that run in lockstep," Hart explains. Running identical code in three separate processor cores enables the system to detect a malfunction in one core, shut down the offending core, and continue operating based on no detected malfunctions in the other two. "If a single event does occur, it will cause one of the cores to lose lock," Hart says. "If that happens the higher-level supervisory system that operates above it will reset the device. It will take in the order of seconds to reboot a typical embedded application; while the upset core is rebooting, the other two carry on. You're fully recoverable after a bit flip." Radiation creep Hardening electronic systems to the effects of radiation isn't just a space problem any longer. Aircraft flying at altitude, at about 30,000 feet and above, also are starting to experience radiation-induced effects. "There are 500 times more neutrons at 30,000 feet than there are on the ground," points out Aitech's Romaniuk. If commercial avionics systems designers aren't considering radiation hardening today, they soon will be. The shrinking of commercially developed microprocessor architectures and other electronic devices will continue making the problem worse. ERAFT                                            ANATOMY OF SPACE CRAFT        BepiColombo’s cruise configuration A spacecraft has a number of essential components, such as an engine, power subsystem, steering system and communications system, in addition to science instruments. Most of these systems are housed in a section called the service module, while the science instruments make up the payload module. These are encased inside the spacecraft’s main structural unit and connected by a ‘harness’, the electrical framework on which the spacecraft electronics systems communicate.                                                      Propulsion and thrust : The propulsion system that a satellite carries is dictated by the orbital position that it needs to reach and by the type of mission. Additionally to the launch vehicle-provided propulsion, there may be an upper stage (e.g. Fregat) that delivers the spacecraft to a higher or to an escape orbit. The spacecraft itself may carry its own (attached or jettisonable) propulsion module for orbital manoeuvres or orbit adjustment. Finally, smaller thrusters may be  included for fine orbit adjustments and orbit maintenance, the so-called stationkeeping. ‘Cold gas’ propulsion will be used by Gaia and Lisa Pathfinder and is the simplest type of chemical propulsion. The propulsion system consists of pressurized gas and a nozzle, and whenever thrust is needed the nozzle is opened and some of the gas is expelled. Most satellites also have simple hydrazine thrusters and/or reaction or momentum wheels to control attitude and orbit. Solar-electric propulsion using ion engines is an alternative way to travel in space. Ion engines shoot out a spray of ionized particles to deliver their thrust to push the spacecraft on its way. Ion engines typically get the high power required to ionize the propellant particles from the spacecraft’s solar panels. They work their magic in a leisurely way and can go on pushing gently for months or even years, for as long as the Sun shines and the small supply of propellant lasts. ESA’s SMART-1 spacecraft used ion propulsion to travel to the Moon in 2003; Bepi-Colombo, launching in 2015, will also use this method combined with gravity assists from flybys of the Earth, Venus and Mercury to finally enter orbit around Mercury. Studies are also being made in Field-electric propulsion systems (FEEPs), an advanced electrostatic propulsion concept that uses liquid metal and electric fields to create an acceleration                                                                   POWER : A spacecraft must generate and distribute adequate power to operate its subsystems and instruments. The power generation is usually catered for by solar panels, which convert sunlight into electricity. When the spacecraft is in eclipse, that is in the shadow of a celestial object or turned away from the Sun and the panels thus do not generate power, batteries kick-in. Depending on the type of spacecraft, solar panels may take on a traditional winged shape (for three-axis stabilized satellites) or be wrapped around the cylindrical body of a spinning spacecraft. Different spacecraft units may require different voltages. Some spacecraft have central units to convert and stabilise the ‘raw’ voltage produced by the solar array before it is distributed, while for others the conversion happens within the units. Planck spinning in space                                                           NAVIGATION SYSTEM A navigation system, usually referred to as ‘Attitude and Orbit Control’ is essential for the spacecraft to maintain its attitude, so that it can be directed towards its intended destination.  This capability is also required to keep its solar panels pointed towards the Sun and its instruments pointing at specific targets. Attitude control is achieved with electronic 'eyes' (sun and star sensors).  These can sense the location of the Sun and track the stars allowing the spacecraft’s position and orientation to be calculated. A propulsion system or reaction wheels controlled by appropriate software ensure then that the spacecraft is moved or oriented appropriately.  Most modern spacecraft are ‘three-axis stabilised’ so that they sit 'upright' in space, while other satellites may spin to achieve stability. For example, Planck revolves about a Sun-pointing axis once per minute to stabilise its attitude.                                     COMMUNICATION  AND DATA HANDLING The communications system returns science data, that is passed on to the scientists,  and 'housekeeping' data, called telemetry, which allows engineers back on Earth to monitor the condition of the spacecraft. The on-board communications system also receives all incoming commands. Communications may be carried out at different frequencies using a combination of dishes and high- or low-gain antennaes.                                                         SCIENCE PAYLOAD Instructions are received from the ground in the form of individual commands or sequences to be executed at pre-defined times. The commands are processed by the data handling system that either executes them immediately or stores them for later execution. The data handling system comprises processors, on-board memory, and analog to digital and digital to analog conversion systems. Herschel’s cryostat vacuum vessel Science instruments and experiments make up the payload, the number and type of which depends upon the objectives of the mission and the size of the individual payload components. The payload elements and the consortia providing them are selected by means of an open call before the mission is selected. The scientific payload is normally funded by member states via the scientific members of the consortia.                                                     Astrophysics missions   Missions that study the Universe – stars, galaxies, black holes and so on – study objects by collecting the radiation they emit, using telescopes, cameras and detectors.  They usually have a large mirror to collect light from distant astronomical objects. The larger the mirror, the more light it can collect, and the fainter the object it sees. The surface of the mirror has to be precisely shaped and perfectly smooth, since the slightest roughness distorts the final image. Once light from an object, like a star, falls onto the primary mirror, it is directed towards a smaller secondary mirror where the light is focused and directed to the instruments. Here, the light is detected and analysed, and the results recorded by the onboard computer to eventually be relayed back to Earth.   A ‘baffle’ or sunshield surrounds the telescope, limiting the amount of stray light from the Sun, Earth or Moon that can leak onto the detectors and spoil the results. A sunshield also helps radiate excess heat into space, maintaining a stable temperature. A sophisticated cooling system may also be required; for Herschel and Planck the detectors must be cooled to temperatures close to the coldest temperature reachable in the Universe – absolute zero, or –273.15°C. This is achieved using a cryostat, which typically contains liquid superfluid helium at temperatures lower than -271°C. The role of the cryostat is fundamental because it determines the lifetime of the observatory: the superfluid helium evaporates at a constant rate, gradually emptying the tank. Rosetta’s Philae lander on comet nucleus                                                             Solar System missions   Spacecraft in orbit around a planet host a wide range of instruments to record information about the planet’s atmosphere, surface, and even subsurface. The payload may include cameras to take images; spectrometers to determine the chemical composition of planet’s surface and atmosphere; radar to probe the subsurface, and instruments to study the way in which the planet interacts with the Sun’s magnetic field. The payload may also include a lander, such as Cassini’s Huygens lander that touched down on Saturn’s moon Titan in 2005, and Rosetta’s lander Philae, which will probe the surface of Comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko in 2014 by scooping up samples of the surface and analysing them in its on board science laboratory. Other missions may include a rover to explore a wider range of a planet’s surface; penetrators to probe the subsurface of a planet or moon to detect ‘earthquakes’; or they may have a sample return element, which must be capable of returning back to Earth with samples collected from the target.                                                    Fundamental physics missions   Missions like Lisa Pathfinder will validate in flight a completely new and previously untested method of observing the Universe. Lisa Pathfinder is tasked with testing technology that will lead to the detection of gravity waves, which are thought to be generated by massive objects like black holes. The mission consists of placing two test-masses in a nearly perfect gravitational free-fall, and of controlling and measuring their motion with unprecedented accuracy. This is achieved through state-of-the-art technology comprising inertial sensors, a laser metrology system, a drag-free control system and an ultra-precise micro-propulsion system.                                                        SLUSH – The Search for Life Using Submersible Heated drill                                                                              Spider Water Extraction System Water is essential to human spaceflight missions. It is an immensely valuable resource to sustain astronauts, and as a building block for rocket fuel or other valuable compounds. This is why In Situ Resource Utilization, or ISRU, is so attractive to both exploration and commercial ventures: using local resources means missions can start with lower supplies, or extend their missions far beyond what is possible with materials on-board. Autonomously harvesting water from asteroids, however, is a nontrivial process for space mining technology. Designed for a mission to water-rich asteroids (Carbonaceous Chondrites), Honeybee Robotics’ Spider Water Extraction System is a spacecraft that drills and acquires icy soil samples, extracts the water for later use, and disposes dry soil to prepare for another round of sample collection. The architecture enables each drill to generate significant down-force in the absence of gravity — the auger drills mounted on each leg provide anchoring force as they sample for water-rich material. The Spider Water Extraction System, developed as part of the World Is Not Enough (WINE) program, is designed to be resilient, with multiple systems integrated into spacecraft lander legs provide higher processing volume and system redundancy.  The architecture provides a combination of low mass and high strength to drill into tough icy and mineral composites that can be as hard as concrete, whether the material is hydrated or free water. It has demonstrated the ability to gather water from Carbonaceous Chondrite analog materials (hydrates) under thermal vacuum conditions. The Spider Water Extraction System has two modes of mobility on an asteroid, with the ability to walk across the surface and also hop using steam propulsion (with propulsion powered by water mined from the target asteroid). As such, it could be used as a pre-mining surveying technology or as a mining platform on its own.                                                                                            Sample Processing Systems Robotic’s geotechnical work focuses on the entire sample acquisition and analysis chain. Sample preparation is at the heart of this process: a well-prepared sample is essential for accurate geotechnical analysis. Automated sample processing and sample preparation systems must be rugged enough to withstand vibration and harsh environments, but also low-power and lightweight for mobile applications. Honeybee’s Mechanized Sample Handler (MeSH) is a prototype miniature centralized sample preparation station that could be mounted on a rover for a future mission to Mars. MeSH crushes small rock cores to powder, then sieves and distributes it in measured aliquots to one or more instrument inlet ports. This system provides a complete core-to-instrument processing solution. It features a fast, efficient, fully automated 8-axis mechatronic system. Honeybee’s Grinding/Polishing Station (GRITS) is an autonomous three-station operation that can autonomously grind and polish, measure thickness, and measure surface finish to produce very thin samples of rock for geotechnical analysis. The autonomous system produces thin sections, on the order of 30 microns, with a surface roughness of 0.3 microns or better. These samples can then be analyzed by reflected light, polarized light, or other techniques to understand the geological composition of the rock.      Spacecraft Design Electronic Sub-systems About the electronic design of satellites and spacecraft :  Introduction - Comparison of spacecraft electronic systems to an equivalent ground based unit. Power Systems - Solar cells, solar arrays; storage cells; regulation dissipative and non-dissipative, regulators linear and switched mode, noise reduction, filters, supply monitoring, decentralised regulation. Attitude sensing and control - Earth and Sun sensors, charge coupled devices, wedge and strip, crossed anode, magnetic sensors, search coil and fluxgate, magnetic torquers. Mechanisms & Housekeeping - Control monitoring; optical and magnetic, pyrotechnic actuators, bridge techniques. Harnesses - EMC magnetic and electric coupling, shielding efficiencies for near and far field, EMC outgassing ports, connector types, low and high voltage, printed circuit board types. Reliability - Design techniques, heat dissipation, latch-up, interface and single point failures, housekeeping requirements, components specification, failure rates, fabrication, radiation testing, effect of radiation, displacement and ionisation damage, transients effects, designing for radiation protection. Analogue design - Charge sensitive amplifiers, noise considerations, practical circuits, pulse shaping circuits, unipolar and bipolar pulses, base line depression, pulse pile-up, low frequency measurements. Example sessions - Electrical hardware circuits for past and present space missions will be described and demonstrated utilizing the project's development circuit boards.                                           Challenges in designing electronics for satellites           The earliest satellite designs were huge, heavy, and functionality was limited.  Nevertheless, satellite designs started evolving with the passage of time and a new era of satellite modeling began with the invention of microcontrollers (MCUs). Engineers were able to reduce complex circuitry to a few parts as MCUs integrated multiple components, reduced power consumption, and minimized overall housing size and weight as Printed Circuit Board (PCB) size shrank, too. The latest development to making space accessible is the CubeSat. What are CubeSats? According to CubeSat101, Basic Concepts and Processes for First-Time CubeSat Developers, “CubeSats began as a collaborative effort in 1999 between Jordi Puig-Suari, a professor at California Polytechnic State University (Cal Poly), and Bob Twiggs, a professor at Stanford University’s Space Systems Development Laboratory (SSDL).” The publication by the NASA CubeSat Launch Initiative goes on to state, “The original intent of the project was to provide affordable access to space for the university science community, and it has successfully done so.” Figure 1: CubeSats come in several sizes. The exactingly specific standards for CubeSats is one of the reasons why they are an affordable means to access space experimentation. (Image: CalPoly) CubeSats are defined in sizes based on a standard CubeSat unit (U). A “1U” CubeSat is 10 cm3 and weighs around 1 to 1-1/3 kilograms. Since the first CubeSat, larger sizes have evolved and are based on the original 1U size, varying in size as 1.5U, 2U, 3U, and 6U, with new CubeSat sizes always a possibility. Today, many of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration’s (NASA) CubeSats contain ARM, Atmel, Texas Instruments’ MSP430, and Microchip Technology PIC microcontrollers.There are many challenges to designing electronics for aerospace or space travel, however. Temperature, vibration, and radiation challenges  Designing for space is much more complicated than designing for standard electronics. Electronics for military, avionics, and aerospace are crafted to withstand the extreme temperatures, vibration, shock, and radiation effects commonly encountered at lift-off and outside the earth’s atmosphere. Temperatures vary along a wide range from -55°C to +125°C in space. For instance, the surface temperature of the Moon ranges from between approximately –200°C to +200°C. A satellite can be exposed to below-freezing temperatures and extremely hot temperatures within a short period of time, taxing all materials. Extreme temperature not only shortens the life of a component, but it also affects its everyday operational functionality. Casual electronic components cannot bear such temperatures or such a wide range of temperatures for long. Commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) components that are designed to withstand the required temperature range must be used. An electronic part or kit that is specifically designed to a level of performance and reliability may be subject to assurance processes within the industry’s supply chain. The processes are meant to establish a quality and reliability foundation for the electrical, electronic, and electromechanical components that end up in the industry’s critical applications. “These assurance processes, with inspections and tests possibly performed on a sample basis depending on criticality, are intended to identify defects and abnormalities that serve as warning signs of a potential for premature failure, reduced performance, and safety. One example of an industry that conducts assurance processes is the Automotive Electronics Council, or AEC. The AEC “was originally established by Chrysler, Ford, and GM for the purpose of establishing common part-qualification and quality-system standards,” per the AEC’s site at aecouncil.com. Components meant for space travel also have exacting standards. Temperature isn’t the only factor. Vibration at lift-off could mean the sudden application of 9.2 million pounds of thrust. The galactic cosmic rays in space pose another major challenge and are a “slowly varying, highly energetic background source of energetic particles that constantly bombard Earth,” per the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA).The rays carry high-energy ions which are capable of energizing satellites electronics, resulting in malfunctioning and damages. Galactic cosmic rays (GCR) consist of heavy elements with high energy ions and no electrons. GCRs are concentrated with protons; they lose their electrons in the course of traveling through the galaxy at the speed of light. (See Figure 2 for more information.) GRCs can pass through a satellite or an astronaut’s skin.[viii] Satellites orbiting at low altitude are more affected by radiation.In order to protect electronic components from radiation, the components must be radiation hardened.                                     Figure 2: This illustration depicts two main types of radiation and how the magnetic field around Earth affects the radiation in space near Earth. Galactic cosmic rays are a variable shower of charged particles coming from supernova explosions and other events extremely far from our solar system. The sun is another main source of energetic particles. The sun spews electrons, protons, and heavier ions in “solar particle events” fed by solar flares and ejections of matter from the sun’s corona. Tin whiskers   The vacuum of outer space is also a good environment for tin whiskers to form. Pure zinc, tin, and cadmium plating are not allowed on components that qualify for existence in space. Limited power and housing dimensions Satellites are designed to remain in space for months or years and must have access to power. Solar power is the most likely source of energy to be used in space. The typical CubeSat is equipped with solar cells, however generating power with only a few cells means that the power supply is limited. Under these circumstances, large or power-hungry circuits are not easy to justify. Power consumption and size requirements can be reduced by using Integrated Circuits (ICs). One IC can achieve what was once achieved with a PCB covered with components. The advent of ICs contributed greatly to mankind’s capability in space. Compatibility with available power lines It’s possible that different ICs will require different voltage levels in a satellite. Separate voltage busses might power ICs with different voltage demands. In some cases, it is not practical to use low voltage levels as the voltages could drop significantly enough at the end of a bus to adversely affect operation. In such cases, choosing components with similar voltage level requirements might be preferable. By paying attention to the operating voltage levels of various ICs and components, designs avoid the need to provide several different power supply levels and corresponding voltage regulators. Using components with similar voltage level requirements reduces cost and energy dissipation. Redundant systems A typical satellite mission lasts for years, and repairs are uneconomical. Occasionally a member at the International Space Station or other entity might attempt to fix an issue, however this is a dangerous feat. Therefore, it’s essential to endeavor for flawless designs that are going to function throughout a satellite’s mission life without any issues. For critical missions, redundant systems are often installed in case a part or system malfunctions or dies. Thus, if something fails to operate properly, the redundant system can be implemented either automatically or deployed via radio signal from earth. Interestingly, a side-effect of designing for operation in space is the flexibility of being able to continue a mission even after disconnecting primary systems. Telemetry for monitoring all units Although satellite designs are finalized after extensive design reviews, detailed analyses, and multiple test procedures, unfortunate circumstances may still occur. It is essential to keep track of the various voltage, current, and temperature levels of all the major components. For that, data must be transmitted from the satellite to monitoring stations on earth. Automated, remote monitoring is called telemetry. If satellite telemetry records any significant abnormalities, the associated unit may be disconnected immediately to avoid damage to other systems. Designing systems for space used to be a government-only effort. Today, companies like SpaceX are launching satellites from earth for commercial companies and nations alike. Figure 3: In April 2016, SpaceX’s Falcon 9 first stage landed on droneship aptly named “Of Course I Still Love You. View the landing on                    __________________________________________________________________________________                                                                    Gen . Mac Tech  Zone Space ship Structure __________________________________________________________________________________

By Keith Mahne The 1963 issue of National Geographic magazine provided an amazing snapshot of what the Disney company was like in '63. This lavish article your about to see is all about Walt Disney and Disneyland. The article is truly spectacular at 50 pages in length! Including some of the best photos of Disneyland at that time, it also boasts a three page fold out map of the park and, on the reverse side, a nice three page panorama shot of the Rivers of America. Let's take a look at it all in today's new article... The Magic Worlds of Walt Disney By ROBERT DE ROOS Illustrations by National Geographic photographer THOMAS NEBBIA ONE AUTUMN EVENING in 1928, a new actor appeared at the Colony Theatre in New York in a movie called Steamboat Willie, the first cartoon ever produced with sound. He had ears bigger than Clark Gable’s, legs like rubber hose, a grin wider than Joe E. Brown’s, and a heart of gold. His name was Mickey Mouse. Beginning that night, Mickey and his creator, Walt Disney, grabbed the world’s funny bone and have never lost their grip. The New York Times praised the new film as “ingenious.” “A wow!” cried the Weekly Film Review. Thus was born history’s most influential mouse. Mickey led the way in the development of animation as a new art, to the exploration of the world of animals and faraway people and of their adventures and geography. Mickey Mouse has skipped from triumph to triumph - always preceded by three words in big letters: “Walt Disney presents.” Mickey is featured in comic strips and books in 15 languages, became the star of television’s Mickey Mouse Club, and, finally, founded a magic kingdom called Disneyland. He is Topolino in Italy, Mik-kii Ma-u-su in Japan, Raton Mickey in Mexico, Micky Maus in Germany, Mikki Hiiri in Finland, and just plain Mickey in scores of other lands. He is known around the world - always with approbation and love. Mickey, a versatile fellow, has been everything from farmer and magician to great lover and fire chief. He has directed planets and comets in their courses. He has defied time, space, and gravity. But, though bound to win, he has always fought the clean fight. True to character, “Mickey Mouse” was the designation in World War II for diagrams of convoy movements toward Normandy’s D-day beaches, and Mickey rode into battles as the insigne on hundreds of ships and planes. When King Bhumiphol of Thailand presented Walt Disney with a medal, he said quietly for Walt’s ear alone: “This is an honor from my government, but more than that, it comes from me. I grew up on your cartoons.” Franklin Roosevelt demanded Mickey in the White House. Dowager Queen Mary of Britain liked to find Mickey on the bill when-ever she went to the movies. It can be said that Walter Elias Disney, the man, and Mickey, the mouse, have made a lasting impact on mankind. 700 Awards From Around the World Last fall, in Walt Disney’s outer office at the studio in Burbank, California, I got a glimpse into the dimensions of this durable pair, 35 years after the mouse clicked in the fertile Disney mind. In cases ranged along the walls, on shelves and tables are some of the more than 700 awards the Disney organization has received (page 167). There are dozens of medals, citations, and plaques from appreciative governments attesting the international amity created by Disney’s make-believe characters Mickey, Donald, Goofy the dog, and all the others. Walt once sent a proud director home with a newly won Oscar. “How did the family like it?” he asked next day. “The kids weighed it first thing,” the director said. “You might like to know an Oscar weighs 6 pounds, 12 ounces on our bathroom scale.” The awards from the film industry mean most to Walt. But he is proud that conservation groups have also recognized his interest in protecting wildlife. He is proudest, perhaps, of the Audubon Society Medal awarded in 1955. Walt’s office has become so crowded that recently four cabinets of awards were placed in the studio commissary. Some of the employees promptly nicknamed the commissary “the awards room.” Disney Films Used in Teaching Although Walt constantly denies he is an educator, his nature films, which he calls True-Life Adventures, have received accolades from educators. Films like Seal Island, In Beaver Valley, and The Living Desert were pioneering achievements. Walt’s early edict for them and all the True-Life Adventure pictures was to get the complete natural history of the animals with no sign of humans: no fences, car tracks, buildings, or telephone poles. This concept, plus the intimacy, the extreme close-up view of the animal, completely won the public. The True-Life Adventures; films of the nomadic Blue Men of Morocco, Japanese fishermen, Siam, the Alaskan Eskimo, and Switzerland; Donald Duck’s adventures in Math-magic Land; the man-in-space series, with technical advice by Wernher von Braun; Disney safety films, and many others are a solid part of the curriculum for thousands of school children, not only in the U. S. but abroad - including countries under Communist control. I first saw Walt Disney sitting at a low coffee table, wearing his usual working garb: a short-sleeved sport shirt with a woolen tie, slacks, and a sleeveless alpaca sweater. An aerial photograph of Disneyland dominated one wall. There were photographs of his family, including his five grandchildren; the Disney coat of arms; his first Academy Award. “That first Oscar was a special award for the creation of Mickey Mouse,” he said. “The other Academy Awards belong to our group, a tribute to our combined effort. The whole thing here is the organization. And the big problem was putting the organization together. “Look at Disneyland,” he went on, waving toward the aerial photograph. “That was started because we had the talent to start it, the talents of the organization.” “What’s your role?” I asked. “You know, I was stumped one day when a little boy asked, ‘Do you draw Mickey Mouse?’ I had to admit I do not draw any more. ‘Then you think up all the jokes and ideas?’ ‘No,’ I said, ‘I don’t do that.’ Finally, he looked at me and said, ‘Mr. Disney, just what do you do?’” ‘Well,’ I said, ‘sometimes I think of myself as a little bee. I go from one area of the studio to another and gather pollen and sort of stimulate everybody.’ I guess that’s the job I do. I certainly don’t consider myself a businessman, and I never did believe I was worth anything as an artist.” Until a few years ago, Walt was president of the company, Walt Disney Productions. He resigned and was made board chairman. His older brother Roy became president. Then Walt, tired of signing things, resigned as chairman too. Walt laughed at the memory. “Now my only title is executive producer. I’m the boss of everything that’s produced here. I work on story ideas and gags; I work on every script, writing dialogue and planning scenes. When the story is set, I turn it over to the boys, and they make it. “We film 25 new stories for television and six feature-length pictures a year - and, of course, we think up ideas for the park, Disneyland. The corporation gets its vitality from what we create.” The corporation exhibits considerable vitality: In 1962 this magic world showed a gross income of $74,059,000—more than $20,000,000 from Disneyland alone - and a net of $5,263,000. The Secret Life of Mickey Mouse All this vitality stems from a mouse that was conceived in desperation, gestated in secrecy, and almost died at birth. In the fall of 1927, Walt Disney returned to Hollywood from New York without a staff and without a star. He had gone east to negotiate a new contract for his series Oswald the Rabbit. His distributor refused to meet his price and threatened to lure his whole organization away. “I’ve already signed all your animators,” the distributor told Walt. Walt and Lillian Disney, his bride of two years, had a doleful trip across the continent. Walt needed a whole staff of animators. He also needed a new character fast. The idea for Mickey Mouse was born on the train. “I’ve got it,” Walt told Lilly. “I’ll do a series about a mouse. I’m going to call him Mortimer Mouse.” Lilly Disney frowned. “I like the idea, but Mortimer sounds too dignified for a mouse.” Walt thought a few minutes. “All right, we’ll call him Mickey Mouse. Mickey has a good, friendly sound.” In Hollywood, Walt and Roy Disney and chief animator Ub Iwerks, now director of technical research, began work on Mickey. The defecting animators were still at the studio finishing the Oswald contract, and Walt did not want them to know he was starting a new series. So Ub Iwerks was sequestered in a locked office, and there in four hectic weeks, he animated an entire Mickey Mouse cartoon. That first Mickey was entitled Plane Crazy, a bit of nonsense inspired by the Lindbergh flight. To get the drawings inked and painted on celluloid for the camera, Walt set up tables in his garage at home. There, Lillian Disney, her sister, and Roy’s wife Edna did the job. A cameraman returned to the studio at night to put the pictures on film. When Walt took the movie to New York, distributors were not interested. They were also not interested in a second Mickey, produced while Walt was traveling. Mickey Saved by Plinks and Toots Mickey was close to death. But he was literally saved by the bell - bells, whistles, plinks, and toots. Sound had made its first real impact on motion pictures with the release of The Jazz Singer in the fall of 1927. Walt decided to try it. He and Iwerks rigged a homemade radio with a microphone. They put up a white sheet as a screen and, with two helpers, stood at the mike behind it with noisemakers, a mouth organ, and a xylophone. For six hours, Roy projected a short bit of animation from Steamboat Willie, the third Mickey film. The sound makers watched the image and whanged away. It was ragged, but it convinced them that sound was for cartoons. Walt hurried to New York with the film, and there Steamboat Willie was completed with sound. And it was ingenious and funny sound which transcended the mere novelty of actors singing or mouthing lines. Sound was added to the first two Mickeys. Suddenly and dramatically, evervbody wanted the talking mouse. Walt and the mouse have come a long way since. Nothing about Walt Disney’s background easily explains his success, though he began to draw at an early age. His father, Elias Disney, was a carpenter in Chicago when Walter Elias Disney was born there in December of 1901. When Walt was four, the family there were three older brothers and a younger sister moved to Marceline, Missouri. Walt still recalls the horsecar ride to the railroad station. At Marceline, one of Walt’s first chores was to herd the pigs on the family farm. The Disneys were forced to sell the farm, and in 1910 moved to Kansas City, Missouri. There Walt’s father bought a paper route with 800 customers. Roy and Walt were delivery boys. They started work at 4:30 in the morning and made their rounds on foot. The family moved back to Chicago in 1917. Walt went to high school, attended the Academy of Fine Arts, and took correspondence courses in cartooning. He also worked at the post office sorting mail and delivering letters. “As long as I can remember, Walt has been working,” Roy Disney told me. “He worked in the daytime and he worked at night. Walt didn’t play much as a boy. He still can’t catch a ball with any certainty.” When Walt was 16, he joined an American Red Cross unit as an ambulance driver, but he did not set overseas until after the Armistice. He had 11 months in France, then went to Kansas City and set up as a commercial artist. He finally landed with the Kansas City Film Ad Company in 1920, preparing animated commercials for silent-movie houses. Walt recalls those days. “The pull toward Hollywood became strong. Animation was big there, and if I couldn’t be successful at that, I wanted to be a director or a writer.” In 1923 he went off to Hollywood with $40 in hand, and for two months tried to hitch on at the studios. His $40 disappeared. “Before I knew it, I had my animation board out,” Walt recalls. He finally got an offer for twelve cartoons - Alice in Cartoon-land at $1,500 each. “I talked my big brother Roy into going in with me,” Walt told me. “I couldn’t get a job, so I went into business for myself.” Business was good. Alice was followed by the successful Oswald the Rabbit series. Then came Mickey. “The mouse gave us an opportunity to improve the cartoon medium,” Walt says. Experiment and expansion began in 1929 with the first Silly Symphony, in which music played a key role. Walt worked at the studio all day and every night. Only in recent years has he mastered the compulsion to work all the time. “I still take scripts home,” he told me, “but I don’t read them at night. It’s a temptation to peek, but I wait until morning. I used to read at night and then worry until morning. I used to be tied up all night, but no more.” Donald Duck Becomes a Star Walt’s next enthusiasm was Technicolor’s new three-color process for film. A Silly Symphony, Flowers and Trees, was already fully photographed in black and white. Walt decided to remake it in Technicolor. It was a gamble, since Technicolor was extraordinarily expensive. The picture was made in color and caused a revolution in the animated-cartoon industry. In 1932 it became the first cartoon to win an Oscar. Some of Walt’s funniest pictures were Silly Symphonies - notably The Three Little Pigs and The Tortoise and the Hare. In 1934 Donald Duck made his first sputtering appearance in The Wise Little Hen. That egregious fellow became an immediate hit—and now has surpassed Mickey as the star of the stable. “We’re restricted with the mouse,” Walt told me. “He’s become a little idol. The duck can blow his top and commit mayhem, but if I do anything like that with the mouse, I get letters from all over the world. ‘Mickey wouldn’t act like that,’ they say.” Scenes Gain Depth and Motion As the pictures were ground out, the art of animation progressed. Characters were being drawn in the round and in perspective, as contrasted with the first flat figures. But Walt was never satisfied. “I knew that locomotion was the key,” he told me. “We had to learn to draw motion. Look, pull your hand across your face and you’ll see what I mean. You don’t see a single hand; it’s sort of stretched and blurred. We had to learn the way a graceful girl walks, how her dress moves, what happens when a mouse stops or starts running.” Disney set up an elaborate school for his artists. “It was costly, but I had to have the men ready for things we would eventually do.” What “we would eventually do” was Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs, the first feature-length cartoon. When word of this project got around Hollywood, many movie people said Disney was making his biggest mistake. “They were thinking of the short - thought we were just going to string some together,” Walt said. “But we had a story to tell. They couldn’t get that through their heads.” While his artists were training, Walt had technicians working on a new kind of camera he planned to use for Snow White. He was no longer satisfied with just round figures; now he wanted the illusion of depth. To achieve this, he developed the radically different “multiplane” camera and won an Academy Award for it. In photographing animated films, three separate drawings are usually involved, each done on a sheet of transparent celluloid. One shows the foreground, one the animated figures, and the last the background. Before the multiplane camera, the three celluloids were simply stacked together and the camera shot through them all, giving a flat image. With the multiplane, more than three celluloids could be used, and they could be placed in different planes, sometimes as much as three feet apart. The camera could focus in and out among these planes to give an astonishing effect of depth and motion. Snow White brought up a new problem. “We had to learn how to put personality into the characters,” Walt told me. “Up to Snow White, we’d just had stock characters.” A Disney artist enlarged on the theme. “Remember in Snow White when the dwarfs had the pillow fight and Dopey ended up with a single feather?” he asked. “Remember how he fluffed it out and lay down with it under his head? It was funny, but more, it was Walt’s way of expressing what kind of character Dopey is and creating audience sympathy for him.” Snow White cost one and a half million dollars, and the bankers became restive before it was completed. Walt reluctantly had to show a man from the bank the unfinished product to try to retain their confidence. “We needed a quarter of a million dollars to finish the picture, so you can guess how I felt. “He sat there and didn’t say a word,” Walt told me. “Finally the picture was over and he walked to his car, with me following him like a puppy dog. Then he said, ‘Well, so long. You’ll make a pot of money on that picture.’ So we got the money.” Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs went on to make theatrical history and brought many honors to Disney. In 1938 Yale gave him an honorary master of arts. In presenting him as a candidate for the degree, Professor William Lyon Phelps said: “One touch of nature makes the whole world kin, and Walter Disney has charmed millions of people in every part of the earth… He has endeared America to the hearts of foreigners.” That same year brought honorary degrees from Harvard and the University of Southern California. (In 1960 Walt received an honorary diploma from the Marceline, Missouri, high school, which was pleasant, since he had never finished high school.) After Snow White came other feature-length cartoons: Pinocchio, Fantasia, and Bambi. Fantasia, released in 1940, started out to be a kind of super Silly Symphony for Mickey Mouse, with Leopold Stokowski directing a full orchestra in The Sorcerer’s Apprentice. Walt built it into something more, a brilliant combination of animation and fine music from Beethoven’s Pastoral Symphony to Stravinsky’s Rite of Spring. Fantasia introduced stereophonic sound 15 years before it was generally used in motion pictures. Bambi Points Way to Nature Films Bambi was the fictionalized story of a deer, and the animal studies it involved made it the forerunner of one of Disney’s” most important contributions: the True-Life Adventure films, about live animals in nature. “One thing always leads to another around here,” Walt told me. “In Snow White, we had cute little animals, more on the fantasy side. In Bambi we had to get closer to nature. So we had to train our artists in animal locomotion and anatomy.” Walt introduced live animals into the studio, deer and rabbits and skunks. “But they were no good,” he says. “They were just pets. So we sent the artists out to zoos, and all we got were animals in captivity. Finally, I sent out some naturalist-cameramen to photograph the animals in their natural environment. “We captured a lot of interesting things and I said, ‘Gee, if we really give these boys a chance, I might get something unique!'” But the war intervened: Walt Disney Productions became virtually a war plant for the duration. Disney training films for the Army and Navy, pictures for bond drives, and similar projects made an important contribution to our war effort. As one of his first postwar projects, Walt sent Alfred Milotte and his wife Elma to Alaska. They sent back miles of film. In the footage or mileage Walt stumbled on one of the great stories of nature: the saga of the fur seals coming up from the sea to crowded island beaches in the Pribilofs, there to calve and mate. The Milottes caught the cruel and mysterious reality of the fur seal - the courting and mating, the fury of the bulls defending their harems against bachelor seals, with babies being trampled and crushed in the turmoil. And, in the end, the eerie disappearance of the herds into the sea. The picture was Seal Island. It won an Oscar as 1948’s best two-reel subject. This success was followed by another, In Beaver Valley. Walt will go to the nth degree to get perfection, and for this film he kept cameraman-naturalist Milotte in the wilds for more than a year, studying the beaver’s life habits as he photographed. Out of Milotte’s footage came the story of a talented, fascinating animal. The True-Life Adventure pictures used techniques learned in cartoons. “Any time we saw an animal doing something with style or personality say a bear scratching its back we were quick to capitalize on it,” says a Disney writer. “Or otters sliding down a riverbank humorous details to build personality. “This anthropomorphism is resented by some people they say we are putting people into animal suits. But we’ve always tried to stay within the framework of the real scene. Bears do scratch their backs and otters are playful.” Old Indian Trick Still Works The cameramen spent months in primitive areas, in African heat, in Alaskan blizzards, in South American jungles. A film by Murl Deusing for a National Geographic Society lecture formed the basis of many important sequences in Nature’s Half Acre, and many of the Society’s lecturers over the years have contributed footage to Disney nature films. Disney’s cameramen-naturalists worked with telescopic lenses, zoom lenses, time-lapse cameras, and underwater cameras; from behind elaborate blinds, high in the treetops, and from fixed platforms. Tom McHugh, photographing a buffalo herd for The Vanishing Prairie, found he could not get close enough, even with a telescopic lens. Then he remembered an Indian trick. He covered himself with a buffalo skin and sneaked in for close-ups. James Algar, the writer and director of The Vanishing Prairie, recalls being surrounded by the torrential rush of buffalo. “I’d always heard of the thundering herd, and the herd thundered all right. But what I had never heard of was the sibilant, silken swish which accompanies the stampeding buffalo. It was even more terrifying than the thunder.” Alfred and Elma Milotte spent almost three years in Africa photographing The African Lion. One of their notable sequences shows a rhinoceros bogged in a water hole, helpless and raging. The, exertions and grunts of the doomed rhino attracted an audience of jungle creatures. Birds added their raucous cries. Antelope watched. An elephant surveyed the scene, panicked, and ran away. A baboon sat on the bank thoughtfully, as though trying to contrive some plan that would be of help. Enraged Rhino Charges Benefactors In the film the rhino was left to die. Actually, the Milottes decided to rescue him. Dodging the desperate animal, they got a stout rope under his head and rump, tied the line to a truck, and pulled him free. The rhino was ungrateful. Once on dry land, he charged the truck, and they barely managed to get away. The Milottes brought back much distinguished footage. They recorded a leopard lurking in a thorn tree above a herd of wildebeests, showed him drop on a calf and drag it back into the tree for his meal. They also filmed the kill of an antelope by a lion. Other outstanding film records were produced by Disney’s naturalist-photographers: a bobcat in hot pursuit of a marten; the private lives, births, mating, and the search for food of the pine squirrel, golden eagle, raccoon, and crow; a goshawk striking a flying squirrel in mid-air. They also recorded a goshawk slamming into photographer Paul Kenworthy’s shoulder as he worked high in a tree to film close-ups of its young. As the technique improved, the photographers worked in compounds sometimes as big as 50 acres. “It was a short cut” a writer told me. “We’re not faking nature. We gave the animals the opportunity to appear before the camera. “Take the spectacular shot of the screaming bobcat scrambling to the top of a saguaro in The Living Desert. It may have been taken in a compound but it wasn’t faked. The cat streaked up that cactus because he was frightened by wild pigs. “When we follow the animals underground, we of course expose their tunnels. In Perri, the squirrel goes underground. We spent days conditioning her to the bright lights needed for color photography. Then, when we came to shoot, she didn’t pay any attention to us. We wondered if she had needed conditioning at all.” “Our naturalist-photographers probably wound up knowing as much about animals they photographed as anyone around including the scientists,” Walt said. “I don’t think there’s an animal on the North American Continent we don’t have coverage on.” Merely documenting the lives of wild creatures was not enough. The cameramen’s footage contained drama, but it took the dramatist’s hand to make it coherent. A fascinating fragment of one of Walt Disney’s critiques taken down during a screening of The Living Desert survives and shows him at work: “In sequence where tortoises are courting, Walt said: They look like knights in armor, old knights in battle. Give the audience a music cue, a tongue-in-cheek fanfare. The winner will claim his lady fair…. “Pepsis wasp and tarantula sequence: Our heavy is the tarantula. Odd that the wasp is decreed by nature to conquer the tarantula. When her time comes to lay eggs, she must go out and find a tarantula. Not strength, but skill helps her beat Mr. Tarantula…. “Then the hawk and the snake. Our other heavy is the snake…. With wasp and tarantula it’s a ballet or more like a couple of wrestlers. The hawk should follow. Tarantula gets his and then Mr. Snake gets his… Pepsis wasp doesn’t use brute strength, but science and skill. Should be ballet music. Hawk uses force and violence. One could follow the other and have a different musical theme as contrast.” Nature Documentaries With a Plot Walt has an amazing capacity to dramatize his work. When he is in a story conference, he takes the parts himself. Before Snow White he gave a four-hour performance of the entire picture, taking all the parts from Snow White to the smallest rabbit. “That one performance lasted us three years,” an animator told me. “Whenever we’d get stuck, we’d remember how Walt did it that night.” Next Walt Disney laid plans for a new kind of animal picture. “We decided to combine nature’s truth with fiction,” Walt told me. “We would use the documentary material straight from nature, but give it a plot.” Perri, the story of a squirrel, by Felix Salten, who also wrote Bambi, was the first of these. Naturalist-photographers spent three and a half years in the Uinta Mountains of Utah, filming the life cycle of every animal in the cast. They sent back more than 200 miles of film! “Just viewing their films took weeks,” Winston Hibler, the co-producer, told me. “Then it took painstaking editing to fit the film to the story. And by adding music and animation, we produced a paradox a true-life fantasy.” Petri was followed by a continuing series of similar pictures that tell stories about animals in relation to man. “The animals have names and we kind of pull for them,” a writer told me. “Stories are believable as long as-the audience knows the things actually happened. We have to contrive to get the animals to do what the plot calls for without their appearing to be trained animals. But we aren’t asking them to talk. “In The Legend of Lobo, for example, the script called for the main character, the wolf, to walk a narrow log spanning a deep chasm. This was achieved by training the wolf, first to walk across a log near the ground, then to continue to cross the log as it was raised higher and higher. “When the picture was shot, the wolf actually crossed a log about 75 feet long spanning a chasm several hundred feet deep.” From animal pictures Walt Disney has gone on to live-action pictures about people on an astounding variety of subjects. Disney stuck to timeless pictures at first: Treasure Island, Robin Hood, and Davy Crockett films which can be released many times. “Then I got to thinking, ‘When it comes to making comedy, we’re the ones'; so we did The Shaggy Dog. So far it’s been seen by 55 million people.” The live-action comedies closely follow the Disney cartoon techniques. “We’ve always made things fly and defy gravity,” Walt told me. “Now we’ve just gone on to flying flivvers, floating football players, and bouncing basketball players.” The geographic scope and variety of the Disney activities are awesome. Besides a company in the Burbank studio filming a new movie called Summer Magic, Walt had camera crews in Florida, Yellowstone Park, and New England, a complete production unit in Canada for The Incredible Journey, a production unit in Majorca and another in Vienna, a feature cartoon in the works, plus four television cartoons, and a Western being shot at the studio ranch. I had been told that Walt makes all major decisions on all his pictures, and I wondered how he kept track of things. I found out when I sat in with him as the “dailies” excerpts from various pictures were projected. About fifteen of the staff musicians, directors, song writers, producers, and writers came in. We listened to Burl Ives sing “The Ugly Bug Ball” a dozen times as the camera covered him from different angles. Sad Sam, the original shaggy dog, appeared on the screen with a caterpillar on his nose. We saw a scene from a Western played over and over from different points of view. The dogs in The Incredible Journey went through their paces. Disney himself, in full color, flashed on the screen in a lead-in for his television program, The Wonderful World of Color. He began suavely and then blew his lines. “I’m not only getting wrinkles,” he said from the back of the room, “I’m losing my eyesight, too.” He told a cameraman, “Don’t use that diffusion on me. I look out of focus. Let the wrinkles show.” We were in the projection room two hours. This, I learned, was how Disney keeps on top of his many projects. His men send their product to be appraised. A shipment of film from Europe arrives every Tuesday. Walt also makes frequent trips to Europe and flies key personnel to the studio for conferences. He is not a memo-writing man. “After we tie down the shooting script, it’s up to the boys to make the pictures,” Disney told me. “If they run into trouble, I always tell them, ‘If you bring me a problem, have a solution.’ Lots of times, their solution is the answer and it’s just a matter of saying O.K.” Magazine a Friend to Researchers On one of my first trips around the studio, I saw the National Geographic almost everywhere I went: in the animators’ offices, in the machine shop, on writers’ desks. I saw it in the wardrobe department, where it’s used in designing the correct clothing for various countries, and in the staff shop at Disneyland, where the realistic animals are cast for Adventureland. “Looks like I planted them,” Walt said, “but we really use the Geographic. We couldn’t be in business without it”. When I dropped into the library to inquire about the meticulous research that backs up every Disney picture, Koneta Roxby, the chief of research, told me: “The Geographic is one of our basic research sources. We use it almost every day. “We certainly used it when Disneyland was being built,” she went on. “This library was a madhouse. There would be ten or fifteen people waiting in line for research materials and, of course, the phone rang every minute.” Disneyland really started more than 20 years ago, when Walt got the idea for an amusement park that grownups as well as children would enjoy. “I had all my drawing things laid out at home, and I’d work on plans for the park, as a hobby, at night.” At the time, amusement parks were dying all over the country. “I talked Disneyland, but no one could see it,” Walt recalled. “So I went ahead and spent my own money.” In 1954, for the site of his kingdom, Walt bought 244 acres of land mostly orange groves miles from Los Angeles, near Anaheim, California. “I wanted flat land that I could shape” he said. He surrounded the entire park with a high earth embankment. “I don’t want the public to see the real world they live in while they’re in the park. I want them to feel they are in another world.” When the preliminary plans for the park were completed, the cost estimate was $4,700,000, but Joe Fowler, who is in charge of Disneyland, says, “That was only a guess.” The over-all cost to date is approximately forty-four million dollars! Disneyland: the Geography of Imagination At the Disneyland opening, in July, 1955, a year after the first orange tree was uprooted, Walt said, “Disneyland will never be completed. It will grow as long as there is imagination left in the world.” It seemed, at the time, a pleasant sentiment, but few took it literally. Walt did, and that is why Disneyland remains unique; he is forever enlarging it. Now he is building an old New Orleans Square, complete with a bayou boat ride. Disneyland, on a fall day, is full of warmth and zest. I paid my respects to the giant portrait of Mickey Mouse, in living flowers, that adorns the slanting earth embankment at the park’s main entrance. I stepped into the Town Square and right into Walt Disney’s childhood: The Square with its red-brick Victorian elegances is a distillation of Walt’s early memories of Chicago and Marceline and Kansas City shortly after the turn of the century. A gaily cockaded band was tootling. A horsecar rolled along, the horse’s rubber shoes making muffled thumps; a double-decked bus stood at the curb; and a balloon seller, hidden behind a great cluster of his wares, looked like a gigantic chrysanthemum. Over a loud-speaker from the Santa Fe and Disneyland Railroad station came the measured voice of the train announcer: “… now leaving for Adventureland, Frontierland, Fantasyland, and Tomorrowland all aboarrrd!” Main Street, U. S. A., sets the tone and pace of Disneyland: It is a place for strolling. People stop to peer into the windows of the apothecary shop and the old-time general store, and to look over the shoulder of a sidewalk artist as he sketches a portrait. Most of the visitors are grownups. As the park statistics prove, adult guests outnumber children three and a half to one. Visitors Fooled by Live Swans At the end of Main Street, faraway jungle noises made me turn to the left and enter Adventureland. I took the jungle river cruise aboard the sturdy river boat Ganges Gal, which chugged past menacing crocodiles, a ruined temple, and a group of bathing elephants. Gorillas and a tremendous African elephant roared from the tropical vegetation which choked the banks of the stream. There was some discussion among the passengers about the animals. Were they real? (They were, of course, animated.) But in Disneyland, it is sometimes hard to know where fantasy ends and reality begins. A little later, I watched a pair of ladies peer intently at the live swans sailing on the moat of Sleeping Beauty Castle. “They are not real,” one lady finally said with authority. I met Bill Evans and Ray Miller, landscape architects for the park, and complimented them on the effects they have created along the jungle stream. They have made Disneyland a must for visiting horticulturists. The park has close to 700 species of plants. It takes at least 30 gardeners to keep them in trim. We wandered to the base of the Swiss Family Tree House, which opened last fall. I asked what kind of tree it was. “It was modeled after the ban-van tree, Ficus benghalensis” said Ray Miller, “but we call it Disneyodendron eximius, which means an out-of-the-ordinary Disney tree.” The 70-foot tree is a copy of the Swiss Family Robinson’s tropic domicile, complete with furniture salvaged from their ship. I took a short cut through Frontierland (pages 183-5) just in time to be caught in the middle of a running gun fight between a rootin’-tootin’ sheriff and a Western bad man. Happily, they were using blank cartridges, or the slaughter would have been awesome. The Mark Twain, the stately white river packet, was just leaving her dock for a cruise on the Rivers of America. Across the water, I saw some energetic boys romping on Tom Sawyer Island, while others helped Indians paddle war canoes or rode the high-sided keel boats, the ones used in Disney’s Davy Crockett movie and television series. In Fantasyland I found myself face to face with larger-than-life-size impersonations of famous Disney characters: the Big Bad Wolf, one of the Three Little Pigs, Minnie Mouse. The Mad Hatter, his rubber jowls quivering, was trapped in a corner. He was having a hard time defending himself against a mob of children. The Most Marvelous Submarine In Tomorrowland, I boarded the submarine Skipjack, one of eight submersibles in the Disney fleet. It took me on one of the incredible journeys of the world, though it was made in a mere six million gallons of water rather than an ocean. The sub “went under” in a swirl of bubbles and sailed serenely (guided by sonar, the skipper said) through treacherous coral reefs ablaze with animated tropical fish. Giant turtles dined on sea grass. Barracudas, sharks, and a dangerous moray eel loomed from the shadows. In a plunge to the abyss, we saw phosphorescent creatures of the deep. We passed through the hull of a sunken ship and glimpsed chests filled with gleaming treasure. And, as the skipper explained that we could not expect to see mermaids since they were only figments of imagination, we nosed impolitely into a mermaids’ boudoir. The sub visited the lost continent of Atlantis, went under the polar ice cap, and finally passed what may be the largest sea serpent in the world. Certainly the largest cross-eyed sea serpent. When I talked with Joe Fowler, the retired admiral who is vice president for Disneyland operations, he said his former Navy colleagues are delighted with the submarines. One, a sub skipper, said, “That’s the only time I’ve ever been on a sub and could see where I was going.” “We were apprehensive that some guests might suffer from claustrophobia in the subs,” Fowler told me. “But in my Navy experience, I had learned that few people suffer from claustrophobia if you have moving air and something to see. That’s why there’s an air jet in front of every porthole.” How to Build a Mountain Fowler has one besetting problem: “Almost everything we undertake in the park has never been done before,” he told me. He cited the Matterhorn as an example. The 146-foot-high mountain, which is one hundredth the height of the real Matterhorn, contains 500 tons of structural steel, and almost no two pieces are the same length, size, or weight. The Disney Matterhorn is a close copy of the real mountain. Disney designers studied hundreds of pictures of the rugged peak, pictures taken during the filming of Third Man on the Mountain. Like the original, it also has its mountain climbers, athletes in alpine attire who scale and rappel it eight times daily. Whereas the real Matterhorn is extremely solid, the Disneyland version is hollow and houses an exciting bobsled ride. I rode one of the bobsleds and was lifted high inside the mountain. Then my bobsled dipped over a sharp edge and I was on my own moving around curves, through icy grottos, past waterfalls, and under the Skyway’s ski-lift buckets, which take visitors through the mountain for a view of the ice caves. Finally my bobsled dashed into a tumbling mountain stream, which braked it, and the ride was over. One of the greatest attractions is the Disneyland-Alweg Monorail System which loops in and out of the park. Disney and Alweg engineers collaborated in the design, and the trains were built at the Disney studio. The monorail is the first of its type “piggy-back” design in which the cars are locked to the track. I rode the monorail from the Disneyland Hotel to the park several times. A uniformed girl handed me aboard the long silver train. It started gently, smoothly. We glided over the magic kingdom at 20 miles an hour, silently surveying the wonders below like some satellite from space. Most passengers, myself included, leave the monorail convinced it is the answer for rapid transit of the future. I wandered backstage at Disneyland to visit Bud Washo, the head of the staff shop. There I got a glimpse of the Disney future, though its subject matter in this case was the dim past. At WED Enterprises in Glendale, where all the design work for Disneyland is done, I had watched Blaine Gibson modeling a series of small-scale dinosaurs, cave men, and other prehistoric creatures. Now Bud Washo took me into a barnlike room where Gibson’s dinosaurs were being re-created life-size. An enraged Tyrannosaurus rex with a two-foot mouthful of six-inch teeth is something to stand beside even if it is just clay. Once the clay figures are completed, plaster molds are made, and then the carefully detailed skin is cast from 3/s-inch Duraflex, which Washo described as a “hot-melt vinyl reformulated for strength.” “Hardly anything affects it,” Washo said. “It can take weather, most oils, or gases. It’s enormously flexible and durable.” When the casts are finished, the figures are trucked carefully to the studio machine shop, where their animation machinery is installed. Dinosaur Will Go to World’s Fair I pointed to a sail-backed dinosaur which was being fitted into its skin and asked: “What will that one do?” “It will be able to swish its tail from side to side, open its mouth, flex up and down like a lizard, and the sail will sway,” Washo said matter-of-factly. “Where will the dinosaurs and cave men be used?” I asked. “They’re for the Ford Motor exhibit at the 1964 World’s Fair in New York,” Bud said. Plastic Birds Come to Life One day after lunch, Walt grabbed my arm. “Come on,” he said. “I want to show you something.” We walked in the bright sunshine between the stages on the movie studio lot and turned into the machine shop. Four elephants without skins sat in a row, gravely nodding their heads. On a bench lay what looked very much like a human hand, closing and opening silently. Farther down, a prehistoric man waved his arm; someone had incongruously placed a handkerchief in his hand. On the machinists’ benches stood a variety of plastic birds, opening and closing their beaks, turning their heads, and flipping their tails. Walt stopped to talk to a machinist. I looked at one of the birds. Without its feathers, the creature was a mass of wiring and air tubes. As I watched, this unearthly bird puffed out its chest and began to sing. A machinist told me that every bird contains five air lines and four sets of wires, plus a tiny loud-speaker. “This is the latest thing we’ve done with Audio-Animatronics,” Walt said. “We are using the new types of valves and controls developed for rockets. That way we can get extremely subtle motions.” “About that word,” I said, “Audio-Animatronics.” “It’s just animation with sound, run by electronics,” he smiled. “Audio-Animatronics. It’s an extension of animated drawings. “We take an inanimate object and make it move. Everything is programmed on tape: the birds’ movements, lighting effects, and sounds. We turn on the tape and the birds do their stuff. At the end, the tape automatically rewinds itself and starts all over again. With tape we could present a program of an hour and six minutes without repeating anything.” “Is anyone else doing this kind of thing?” “I don’t know anyone crazy enough,” Walt laughed. Disney Birds Sing Popular Songs Several weeks later, Walt invited me to the studio for a showing of the completed mock-up for the Enchanted Tiki Room, scheduled to open in the park this summer. Now all the birds had been bedecked in colorful feathers, and were individually lighted. Four macaws opened the show with a line of chatter and then swung into a lively calypso number, followed by Offenbach’s “Barcarole.” A fountain jetted in time to the music under colored lights. The fountain sent up a particularly high jet and, as it fell back into the bowl, a Bird-Mobile slowly descended from the ceiling, bearing yellow and white cockatoos. They broke loose with “Let’s All Sing Like the Birdies Sing,” and brought down the house. There was much more: songs sung by orchids and bird-of-paradise flowers; a rain storm; chants by tikis carvings representing various native gods accompanied by animated drummers. It is a tremendous show the climax of more than two years’ work at a cost of approximately a million dollars. Abraham Lincoln Returns to Life I went out into the street again with Walt and Wathel Rogers, who supervised the Enchanted Tiki Room. We entered another building and I got a shock; I almost bumped smack into Abraham Lincoln! The illusion was alarming. The tall, lonely man sits in a chair much as in the Lincoln Memorial in Washington, D. C. But this is no cold stone figure; this Lincoln is man-size and so realistic it seems made of flesh and blood. Wathel Rogers made adjustments at an electronic console, and Lincoln’s eyes ranged the room. His tongue moved as if to moisten his lips and he cleared his throat. Then with a slight frown, he clasped the arms of his chair, stood up, and began to talk in measured tones. “What constitutes the bulwark of our own liberty and independence?” he asked. And then he answered: “Our reliance is in the love of liberty which God has planted in us….” To get an idea of the tremendous animation job this is, try it yourself. Sit in an armchair and pull yourself to your feet, observing how many muscles are called into play and the subtle balance required. The Lincoln skin is the same Du-raflex that has worked so well on the other Audio-Animatronic figures. “Duraflex has a consistency much like human skin,” Rogers said. “It flexes as well as compresses. Rubber, for example, will flex, but won’t compress correctly for our needs.” Rogers described the mechanics: 16 air lines to the Lincoln head, 10 air lines to the hands and wrists, 14 hydraulic lines to control the body, and two pairs of wires for every line. Rogers ran the Lincoln face through some of its 15 expressions. Lincoln smiled at me (first on one side of his face, then the other). He raised each eyebrow quizzically, one at a time, then, fixing me with a glance, frowned and chilled my marrow. And just to show he wasn’t really angry, he ended by giving me a genial wink. “Lincoln is part of a Disneyland project called ‘One Nation Under God;” Wathel Rogers explained. “It will start with a Circa-rama presentation of great moments in constitutional crises. “Circarama is a special motion-picture technique Walt developed for Disneyland and the Brussels World’s Fair. The Bell Telephone Circarama now at Disneyland tells the story of the great sights of America. It has a 360-degree screen. The audience is surrounded by the continuous action, as if they were moving with the camera and able to see in all directions. “The Circarama for the ‘One Nation Under God’ showing will have a 200-degree screen. After the Circarama showing, a curtain will close, then open again to reveal the Hall of Presidents. The visitor will see all the Chief Executives modeled life-size. He’ll think it’s a waxworks until Lincoln stands up and begins to talk.” Audio-Animatronic figures are now being planned for Disneyland’s French Quarter square in old New Orleans. They will also add chilling realism to the Haunted Mansion now under construction in Frontierland. (Visitors who ask about the mansion are told, “Walt’s out capturing ghosts for it now.”) Never Do the Same Thing Twice What next? Walt enjoys the past but he lives for the future. “The fun is in always building something,” he told me. “After it’s built, you play with it a little and then you’re through. You see, we never do the same thing twice around here. We’re always opening up new doors.” I asked him a doleful question, “What happens when there is no more Walt Disney?” “I think about that,” he said. “Every day I’m throwing more responsibility to other men. Every day I’m trying to organize them more strongly. “But I’ll probably outlive them all,” he grinned. “I’m 61. I’ve got everything I started out with except my tonsils, and that’s above average. I plan to be around for a while.” ##### Here are some close up shots at some of the pictures throughout this wonderful article: ********    Keith Michael Mahne is the owner and editor of Disney Avenue and the host of the Disney Avenue Podcast. He has made countless trips to the Walt Disney World resort since his first trip in 1989 at the age of four. Keith has a strong passion and respect for Walt Disney, the parks and resorts, and the men and women who help create them. He started Disney Avenue as a way to inform and entertain readers and to repay all those who make dreams come true every day.

The Customizer Spotlight is a recurring post where I hope to put a spotlight on great Star Wars customizing artists and the customs they have produced that I have in my personal collection. I will also provide ways for our audience to view or acquire future work that these artists may produce. _____________________________________________________________  CUSTOMIZER SPOTLIGHT #1: JACKOFTRADZE JACKKOFTRADZE is a professional Toy Designer who has been working in the industry for over 10 years designing real toy products! He has been a very committed 1/18th scale Star Wars collector since 1991! He collected when no one cared about Star Wars and has been with the line ever since. He recently created a blog and as you read his blog you get the unique perspective of a Toy Designer and a Collector. He has been an active eBay member for over 10 years and for over 4 of those years he has been creating custom figures to enhance his collection. He has a lot of cool customs and insights to share that I think you will enjoy. We only started buying customs in the summer of 2010 and the first three we ever bought were from this great artist. Here are his custom action figures that we own below. WOOKIEE JEDI by JACKOFTRADZE JACKOFTRADZE has awesome paint jobs and great concepts for his super-articulated action figures like this Wookiee Jedi. CHAGRIAN JEDI by JACKOFTRADZE Here JACKOFTRADZE demonstrated how by switching and using parts of figures you have laying around the house, you can create a brand new figure that looks better than most figures you can find at your local store. QUINLAN VOS by JACKOFTRADZE From what we've seen JACKOFTRADZE makes a lot of his figures with soft goods which is great for using his customs in vehicles. We really love JACKOFTRADZE Quinlan Vos custom action figure because of the removable soft goods. By creating the action figure in this way, it feels like we have several different figures in one. Whipid Pirate: Gra Guk by JACKOFTRADZE PART II Since our previous Customizer Spotlight on JACKOFTRADZE, we have acquired several more Star Wars custom action figures and we decided to use the slideshow format to showcase them all just so we could save on space. Check out the newest JACKOFTRADZE additions to my collection! JACKOFTRADZE CUSTOMIZER SPOTLIGHT: UPDATE With excellent concepts, paint application with attention to detail, super articulation, and providing soft goods for use of his action figures in vehicles, JACKOFTRADZE customs are second to none and we highly recommend picking them up at his ebay auctions. He posts new customs every Sunday night so keep your eyes open. We hope you enjoyed our Showcase Spotlight of this great Star Wars customizer and we hope you start to add some of his customs to your collection too. Dad said if it wasn't for JACKOFTRADZE he doesn't think he would have started customizing himself. So I owe a lot to JACKOFTRADZE and that's why he is the first artist we're showcasing in our blog. Hope you enjoyed the post. Click the graphics below to check out JACKOFTRADZE's blog & his auctions on Ebay. _____________________________________________________________ CUSTOMIZER SPOTLIGHT #2: I-AM-BOBA-FETT Hello, and welcome to Customizer Spotlight #2. This time around we are happy to introduce customizer I-AM-BOBA-FETT. I-AM-BOBA-FETT has been making custom figures, ships, accessories, you name it, for almost 20 years. We have seen many variations of Jedi on ebay for sale, but so far I-AM-BOBA-FETT is the only customizer we have seen to tackle the Selkath. I-AM-BOBA-FETT sculpted the Selkath's head, left hand, and his feet then cast them in resin plastic. The clothing was completely handcrafted. The action figure is a unique piece of Star Wars inspired art. His work is generally made for display with the adult collector in mind, but I have been using him as a diorama filler as well. "The Selkath were a sentient aquatic species, native to the ocean-covered planet of Manaan. As an aquatic species, the Selkath were skilled swimmers. They resembled anthropomorphic sting rays and had blue- or green-colored skin, which was patterned for underwater camouflage, and their mouths were bracketed by cephalic lobes. They tended to stroke these during conversation, analogous to the Human habit of stroking facial hair, such as mustaches. All members of the Selkath race had retractable, venom-tipped claws. Similar to the Wookies, the use of these claws in any form of combat or attack was considered dishonorable and a sign of madness; to do this was to give in to animal instincts unbecoming of a sentient species. " taken from Wookiepedia at: http://starwars.wikia.com/wiki/Selkath SELKATH JEDI by I-AM-BOBA-FETT "BUNNY BOT" by I-AM-BOBA-FETT Recently added this little guy to my collection too A long time ago, Star Wars customizer, I-AM-BOBA-FETT, created a cool PLNK Droid that really caught our eyes.  So much so, that we wanted one for our collection.  Originally he made the action figure utilizing two old Vintage Power Droids as his base figure.  When we asked him to make a PLNK Droid for us, we asked if he could use the new Vintage Power Droid from the 3-pack so that our PLNK Droid could have a removable lid.  I-AM-BOBA-FETT did not disappoint. He was even able to provide our custom figure with all the magnetically attached accessories that were included in his original version.  We love the way our PLNK Droid came out! PLNK DROID w/ ACCESSORIES created by I-AM-BOBA-FETT Keep your eyes out for I-AM-BOBA-FETT customs for purchase at his ebay store located at: Click Image You can also check out I-AM-BOBA-FETT customs at his Photobucket account: Click Image You can also check out I-AM-BOBA-FETT customs at his Facebook page: Click Image _____________________________________________________________ CUSTOMIZER SPOTLIGHT #3: SWK KUSTOMS / kr2700 Kevin, or SWK KUSTOMS / kr2700, created two very cool figures in my collection. A Jedi version of me that he sent as a gift for showcasing his work and a Vergere action figure that we bought on Ebay when we first started collecting custom Star Wars action figures. SWK Kustoms started making custom Star Wars figures in 2007. He said his wife Lynn bought him a Han Solo figure as a birthday gift. “You should always get at least one toy on your birthday,” she said. His own collection started shortly after. He thought about making a battle mock up of 100-200 Jedi and Sith, a scene that he imagined would be in the Clone Wars! The prequels went down a different path however… Soon he had around 50 custom Jedi & 50 Sith (Jedi spray painted black). A few months later he began to get bored with just doing simple figures, so he started to experiment. He went through a phase where he made a lot of alien Jedi . He also did more interesting Sith Lords. Lynn then suggested that people might be interested in his figures, so he put some on eBay and his new hobby started to generate some interest! Now four years later & around 300 customs under his belt, SWK Kustoms specializes in fully articulated figures! SWK Kustoms creates fully articulated and detailed Custom 4” figures. Star Wars, Star Trek, DC, Marvel or anything you can think of. With SWK you can also become your favorite character as well: Jedi, Sith, Storm trooper, Mandalorian and much more. Figures can be purchased upon request. Price is based on how hard the piece is to make, usually between $50-150. All figures come with specialized weapons or gear & name plate stands. Add an SWK action figure to your collection today! Vergere (pronounced /vɚ'ʒɪɹ/) was a Fosh Jedi Knight in the waning years of the Galactic Republic. Almost immediately after she hatched, Vergere was taken under the wing of Jedi Master Thracia Cho Leem, who later instructed her in the ways of the Jedi. In 33 BBY, Vergere was part of a Jedi task force sent to Asmeru by Supreme Chancellor Finis Valorum to capture the leaders of the Nebula Front. According to an account given by Lumiya to Jacen Solo in 40 ABY, Vergere was a rogue student, secretly studying sources outside of approved Jedi doctrine. Lumiya claimed that Vergere's studies of other rogue Jedi, including Count Dooku, had led her to Darth Sidious, and at some point between 32 BBY and 29 BBY, Vergere became a student of the Sith Lord. According to Lumiya, Vergere subsequently attempted to kill Sidious when she discovered the extent of his megalomania, but her murder attempt failed, forcing her to flee from his assassins, accepting a mission from the Jedi Council to Zonama Sekot, where she was captured by the Yuuzhan Vong and disappeared in 30 BBY, finding the Yuuzhan Vong on Zonama Sekot and secretly living with them for half a century. During the time of the Yuuzhan Vong invasion, Vergere reappeared and tortured Jacen Solo, wanting to turn him into a future Sith apprentice. She was hunted by the New Republic and hid herself, helping Warmaster Tsavong Lah and other Yuuzhan Vong as well as Solo. At the climactic Battle of Ebaq 9, she sacrificed herself, killing many Yuuzhan Vong and saving Solo. By 40 ABY, the Sith revealed that Vergere had also, secretly, been one of them. Eventually, Vergere's training helped turn Jacen into Darth Caedus, the Dark Lord of the Sith. It is possible that her difficulty to be easily categorized as a Jedi or Dark Jedi inspired the retcon that re-classified Vergere as a Sith. As Vergere's final words affirmed that she saw herself as a Jedi, it is possible she saw no difficulty in holding allegiance to both the Jedi and Sith orders simultaneously, that she believed herself to be redeemed by her actions prior to her death, or that she entirely rejected the moral restrictions of both the Jedi and the Sith, a potential view similar to that of Kreia in the distant past. It should also be noted that Vergere appeared as a Force ghost to Jacen Solo shortly after her death, an ability usually manifested by (redeemed) Jedi. (Taken from Wookiepedia at: http://starwars.wikia.com/wiki/Vergere) VERGERE created by SWK Kustoms kr2700 designed and executed this wonderfully sculpted action figure from the Star Wars Expanded Universe. kr2700 has made a Vergere action figure 8 times already. Email him at [email protected] and see if you can talk him into making one for you. With a customized head, soft good skirt, and a borrowed body from Hasbro's Wioslea action figure, his Vergere action figure is top notch. With a long history like Vergere's, this is an action figure that is capable of providing hours of play time in your Star Wars universe. Jedi Elias Fulton created by SWK Kustoms Now that Star Wars Rebels is in full swing and we have a few of the first episodes behind us, we thought that it would be a good time for our blog to display some Star Wars Rebels custom action figures to add to the excitement building around the show.  SWK Kustoms did a masterful job of adding elbow, knee, wrist, and ankle articulation to the figures from the 3-pack that is available in Toys R' Us without experiencing any of the downfalls associated with paint rub.  The customized lightsaber for Ezra was also handled in an impressive manner.  We especially loved the removable blade on his saber.  Almost all of us complained about the 5 points of articulation in the Rebels line that Hasbro was releasing, so it's nice to know that there are customizers out there providing the articulation that we all desire to give our figures more pose-ability for play. SUPER-ARTICULATED "KANAN JARRUS" & "EZRA BRIDGER" created by SWK CUSTOMS SUPER-ARTICULATED "GARAZEB ORRELIOS aka ZEB" created by SWK KUSTOMS SUPER-ARTICULATED "ZEB" with SUPER-ARTICULATED "KANAN JARRUS" & "EZRA BRIDGER" created by SWK KUSTOMS Another Star Wars Rebels character gets some increased articulation thanks to SWK Kustoms. The figure was well worth the expense of having to make it myself. The joints SWK Kustoms added are seamless and strong. These are very well engineered figures. While, the custom figures that he has made do lack ball jointed shoulders, even I will admit as a seasoned customizer myself, that even I would forgo the modification. It would be more trouble than it was worth. Almost all of us complained about the 5 points of articulation in the Rebels line that Hasbro was releasing, so it's nice to know that there are customizers out there providing the articulation that we all desire to give our figures more pose-ability for play. With around 300 customs under his belt, SWK Kustoms specializes in fully articulated figures! SWK Kustoms creates fully articulated and detailed Custom 4” figures. Star Wars, Star Trek, DC, Marvel or anything you can think of. With SWK you can also become your favorite character as well: Jedi, Sith, Storm trooper, Mandalorian and much more. Figures can be purchased upon request. Price is based on how hard the piece is to make, usually between $50-150. All figures come with specialized weapons or gear & name plate stands. "THE INQUISITOR  with INCREASED ARTICULATION"  created by SWK KUSTOMS We love the custom flight mask that he made! Also check out: INQUISITOR LIGHTSABER MODIFICATIONS by Darth Daddy We just got the last of the Hasbro released Star Wars Rebels figures that we wanted in more articulated form.  Star Wars customizer, SWK Kustoms, really transformed Hasbro's action figure of Cikatro Vizago by adding ball-jointed elbows, knees, and ankles to their five point articulated figure.  SWK Kustoms even added some swivel wrists as well.   Here at Customs for the Kid, we had always wondered what this line would have looked like if consumers were able to obtain the superior craftsmanship that was available in The Clone Wars 3 3/4" action figure line, before the quality of the action figures was drastically reduced.  The idea of more articulated Rebels action figures was just dreamy.  Deep down I think many collectors wanted to more articulated figures made and available on store shelves.  Especially if they opened their figures. Vizago was the fifth Rebels custom action figure we purchased from SWK Kustoms. We really liked how he maintained the Hasbro aesthetic in his customization of his Rebels figures.  The action figures all had extremely durable construction and were manufactured out of ball joints taken from multiple action figures. (It takes the ball joints from several super-articulated action figures to create a custom action figure that was made out of a 5 POA figure.  This means improving the articulation on the action figure can become a very costly enterprise.)  When we saw SWK Kustoms Rebels figures available for purchase, our immediate response was to buy them right away. The savings we'd receive just in parts and labor alone made purchasing his versions a real bargain.  Because we were already in the process of working on more than six custom Rebels figures of our own and we were using the same technique with the very same style that he was...it was a no brainer.  It was like shopping out half of the work on our project.  We couldn't have been more pleased with out decision. STAR WARS REBELS  "CIKATRO VIZAGO" custom action figure  featuring Increased Articulation  created by SWK Kustoms SUPER-ARTICULATED STAR WARS REBELS "AHSOKA TANO" created by SWK KUSTOMS Visit SWK KUSTOMS on facebook:  www.facebook.com/swkustoms Email SWK KUSTOMS at:  [email protected] Check out his "profile page" on ebay at: http://myworld.ebay.com/kr2700?ssPageName=ADME:X:CEM:US:1181 _____________________________________________________________ CUSTOMIZER SPOTLIGHT #4: Stocos28 Our latest customizer, Stocos28, is from New Jersey and he specializes in custom 3 3/4" figures for the adult collector. He offers great customs that can be played with. He's huge fan of Star Wars, G.I. Joe and all things 80's. Stocos28 has been an ebay member since July of 2005 offering custom action figures to the ebay community. With a 100% positive feedback score from over 1,350 ebay buyers, we think it's safe to say he puts out exemplary work. We bought a human Jedi named Kentar Framic from Stocos28 a while back that we featured in our Customizer Spotlight and recently added a second custom action figure created by Stocos28 to my collection, Jedi Master Ey' Dee. He'll tell you that he's no Sith_Fire30, but in our opinion he's working real hard at getting there and the results are evident. This talented customizer even offers resin cast sculpts from the customs he makes over at Slayer Design Studios. If you ask us Stocos28 is a customizer to watch. Kentar Framic by Stocos28 We love that this figure included a detachable comlink! The action figures body was taken from the Prince of Persia toy line that customizers have been eager to use for the detailed clothing the action figures offer. The clothing is just perfect to use as Jedi robes. The Prince of Persia action figures can be found on clearance in toy stores everywhere if you know where to look. We saw a couple of these on clearance in a local Target. Jedi Master Ey' Dee by Stocos28  Stocos28 once again graces our shelves with this wonderful custom 3.75” Fennec Shand action figure from The Mandalorian!  The figure sports a stunning likeness to Ming Na Wen thanks to the talents of Watto’s Scrapyard, and Stocos28’s beautiful paint job.  The figure features soft goods, an alternative head with her helmet, as well as full range of articulation.  Her screen accurate sniper rifle was provided by Aude’s Workshop. All in all, this is a great figure.  Her sculpt is on point, and her paint is beautiful.  Because she is super articulated, she has all the range of motion you would want in a bounty hunter action figure.  The option to change between her helmet and her head is another feature to appreciate.  Stocos28’s exemplary work never fails to impress us here at Customs for the Kid.   Be sure to visit his eBay store at http://myworld.ebay.com/stocos28/ to keep up with his latest creations! "Fennec Shand" created by Stocos28 You can view the ebay page for Stocos28 and see his items listed for sale at: https://www.ebay.com/usr/stocos28 You can also email him at: [email protected] _____________________________________________________________ CUSTOMIZER SPOTLIGHT #5: Order66Customs/Fritzkreig Time for yet another edition of Customizer Spotlight. This time around we are featuring the work of Order66Customs, also known as Fritzkrieg. We have several pieces made by this artist and Dad says these are some of his favorites in my collection. Dad likes the diorama fillers with no back story. He says these figures provide a lot of freedom when we play because we don't have to worry about messing with the Star Wars timeline. Just last night Dad came across the work of Order66Customs in the Yakface Forums (http://www.yakfaceforums.com/phpBB3/viewtopic.php?f=14&t=267). We got to see the action figures shown below posted there before they had been added to my collection. We were shocked when we realized how long ago the figures were made. They were all created in 2007, but we did not acquire them until this year. Anyway enough talk, check out the skills on this artist. Hope you enjoy as much as we do! P.S. - Make sure you check out those forums. His custom vehicles are over the top. Wish I had some in my collection. SPACE JOCKEY by Order66Customs Love the paint job on the helmet. KUBAZ TRAVELER by Order66Customs We had so much fun with this action figure that he took up an entire days worth of playing. Still having fun with him. TUSKEN WAR CHIEF by Order66Customs Chukarr Karott Seduced by the technology of the outlanders, as well as their drink. Chukarr veiws the old ways as foolish and craves the power that the outlanders possess. He secretly plots to take control of the five clans. He has been hoarding a cache of outlander weaponry, buying his time for just the right moment.  PIRATES by Order66Customs Twi'lek Pirate Nautolan Pirate You can find Order66Customs action figures here: http://shop.ebay.com/order66customs/m.html?_nkw=&_armrs=1&_from=&_ipg=&_trksid=p3686 _____________________________________________________________ CUSTOMIZER SPOTLIGHT #6:jimjedi3002 Below are two custom action figures from my collection made by jimjedi3002. He is today's Customizer's Spotlight. The heads on these action figures are too loose for play, but they are both great for creating photo novels. MARA JADE - THE EMPEROR'S HAND by jimjedi3002   The Mara Jade is highly pose-able. A very simple custom, but a big payoff for the effort. OZZIK STURN Ozzik Sturn was a Human male Imperial captain and big game hunter. Using family connections, Sturn rose through the ranks of the military. When assigned to various worlds, he would spend time hunting native creatures, taking their heads as trophies. Sturn desperately wished for an opportunity to hunt a fugitive Jedi during the Great Jedi Purge. He did not get his wish, however, as he was installed as Chief Magistrate on the Mid Rim world Malastare. No longer satisfied with hunting animals, Sturn had sentient prisoners released into a private hunting reserve, in which he would hunt them down. This outraged Malastare's native Dugs and Grans, so the captain was transferred to the Wookiee homeworld of Kashyyyk and tasked with overseeing the construction of a large skyhook in orbit by Wookiee slaves. There, he would hunt the native Wookiees, going so far as to wear their pelts as part of his uniform. He even had a private trophy room to display the severed heads of animals he had killed. In 2 BBY, Princess Leia Organa of Alderaan arrived on Kashyyyk as part of a trap set by Emperor Palpatine to prevent her father, Senator Bail Organa, from rebelling against the Empire. Should Senator Organa rebel, Sturn promised Leia that she would die in a Wookiee uprising. Jedi Master Rahm Kota, an ally of Senator Organa's who had led a brief rebellion against the Empire months earlier, learned of Leia's situation and tasked Galen Marek—"Starkiller," the secret apprentice of Darth Vader—with rescuing her from Kashyyyk. Leia then, in turn, tasked Marek with destroying the skyhook, and so Sturn finally saw his chance to hunt the man he assumed to be a Jedi. While Starkiller was busy removing the tractor pins that anchored the skyhook to the planet's surface, Sturn entered his personal AT-KT and attempted to kill him. Starkiller destroyed his AT-KT and killed the captain instead, just before destroying the skyhook itself. OZZIK STURN by jimjedi3002  Love the Wookie pelt. You can view his ebay auctions at: http://shop.ebay.com/jimjedi3002/m.html?_nkw=&_armrs=1&_from=&_ipg=&_trksid=p3686 or view his ebay profile page at: http://myworld.ebay.com/jimjedi3002&ssPageName=STRK:MEFSX:SELLERID _____________________________________________________________ CUSTOMIZER SPOTLIGHT #7: Deimos Customs Season 3 of the Clone Wars TV series has just started and Deimos Customs just created the action figure of the newest Star Wars character that all fans are dying to see ... Savage Opress. This is a very well made figure and our Savage Opress action figure's already leading the Separatist army across our living room floor. Savage Opress was a Zabrak warrior who was recruited by Count Dooku during the Clone Wars. During the Clone Wars, Dooku met an intermediary, the Dathomiri witch Talsain, who introduced him to Opress. The warrior was said to be related to Zabrak Sith Lord Darth Maul. SAVAGE OPRESS by Deimos Customs  You can view his ebay auctions at: http://shop.ebay.com/deimos-customs-collectibles1707/m.html?_nkw=&_armrs=1&_from=&_ipg=&_trksid=p3686 or view his ebay profile page at: http://myworld.ebay.com/deimos-customs-collectibles1707/ You can also email him directly at: [email protected] You can also add him as a friend on Facebook here: http://www.facebook.com/profile.php?id=100001455980797 _____________________________________________________________ CUSTOMIZER SPOTLIGHT #8: Pack Rat Studios Welcome again to Customizer Spotlight. We've gotten a lot of buzz from our readers about our latest artist and his awesome droid creation since we listed our Coming Soon post. Pack Rat Studios is a studio that specializes in Developing, Building and Painting Custom Action Figures. Most of their works are put up on ebay for Auction. Also, Pack Rat Studio deals in Vintage or Current Action Figures and Collectibles. R2-Bertie by Pack Rat Studios At home we also call him Goliath.   He has fully pose-able arms, elbows, fingers and thumbs. BARBARELLA by Pack Rat Studios Originally we bought her on ebay under the listing of "Female Bounty Hunter" but she has since been incorporated into our band of pirates. She is always seen with her trusty droid R2-Bertie. You can check out their blog by clicking the blog links on our page or by going to: http://packratstudios.blogspot.com/ You can view the ebay seller page for Pack Rat Studios at: http://myworld.ebay.com/packratstudios?rvr_id=146108397772&VER=seller&POS=seller&seller=packratstudios You can contact Pack Rat Studios at: [email protected] _____________________________________________________________ CUSTOMIZER SPOTLIGHT #9: INSIDIOUS CUSTOMS Hello again and welcome once more to another edition of Customizer Spotlight. This time around, we are showcasing a custom Juno Eclipse action figure made by Insidious Customs. Eric LeFeber is a professional toy designer, game designer and marketer with over 13 years in the entertainment industry. When he's not creating new products for the top toy and game companies, he makes them for himself. He also has items for sale at his Etsy shop or on ebay auctions which we have posted at the links below. If you have something special in mind, you can even contact him for a commission.  Juno Eclipse  Juno Eclipse was a Human female who served the Galactic Empire as an Imperial officer and pilot during the Great Jedi Purge. Her exceptional skills in leadership and combat were noticed by several high-ranking officials in the Imperial Military, including the Sith Lord Darth Vader. Rising through ranks in record time, Captain Eclipse was personally chosen by Vader to lead his Black Eight Squadron. Although she initially considered service under Emperor Palpatine's right-hand man to be the highlight of her career, her role in the Bombing of Callos caused her to doubt some of the Empire's policies. Although her beliefs wavered due to the mass genocide and complete sterilization that rendered Callos uninhabitable, Captain Eclipse was unwilling to abandon her allegiance to the Empire, nor her hard-earned position under Darth Vader's command. However, Vader came to the conclusion that Eclipse lacked a certain quality in ruthlessness that he found necessary in those who served him. As a consequence, he reassigned her to a highly confidential detail. Hence, in 3 BBY, Eclipse became the latest pilot of the Rogue Shadow, a stealth vessel that was piloted by several individuals in turn. The purpose of her top secret assignment was to transport Darth Vader's agent to wherever his missions required him to go. During that time, she was unaware that the mysterious young man was Vader's secret apprentice, codenamed "Starkiller." Although she learned that Starkiller was a Force-sensitive assassin, who was tasked with hunting down the last of the Jedi, her attempts to learn any personal information about him were met with failure. Upon inadvertently discovering Vader's plot to kill Emperor Palpatine with Starkiller's aid, Eclipse's loyalties became divided between her Emperor and immediate superior. Nevertheless, she continued to carry out her orders to the letter, and took great care to not allow the apprentice to learn of her accidental discovery. But when Vader unexpectedly betrayed his disciple at the behest of the Emperor, the Dark Lord branded Captain Eclipse as a traitor due to her association with Starkiller. Stripped of her rank and all that she worked hard to gain, Eclipse was imprisoned on the Empirical. Six months later, Juno Eclipse was freed by Starkiller, whose apparent death was faked by Darth Vader in order to continue their assassination plot against Palpatine. Eclipse, forced into the life of a fugitive, reluctantly renounced her allegiance to the Galactic Empire and joined with Starkiller on his mission to create the Rebel Alliance. However, she was unaware of the fact that the apprentice remained loyal to his master; nor did she realize that the Rebellion's purpose was to distract the Emperor's attention in order to create a new opportunity to kill him. During their adventures, Eclipse and Starkiller gradually developed a rapport that eventually turned into love. When Vader betrayed the apprentice for a second time, Starkiller denounced the Sith and embraced his Jedi heritage. By that time, Eclipse learned that the apprentice's birth name was "Galen Marek." However, their relationship was brought to an untimely end when Marek perished in battle against Emperor Palpatine by sacrificing his own life in order to save the founders of the Rebel Alliance. Shortly after Marek's death, Eclipse witnessed the official founding of the Alliance to Restore the Republic on Kashyyyk. She chose to honor the fallen apprentice's legacy by joining the Alliance Fleet as one of its first officers. Less than a year later, Juno Eclipse was commissioned as the captain of the Rebel flagship, the Salvation. Although Insidious Customs loved the Toys R Us exclusive box sets of figures, he still felt that Hasbro didn't get Juno Eclipse right. So in anticipation of The Force Unleashed 2 video game being released later this month, he created another Juno Eclipse and this time she's even better. JUNO ECLIPSE (CASUAL ATTIRE) by Insidious Customs He used the new box set version of Juno as a base, replaced her long sleeved arms with custom sculpted shorter sleeve arms, sculpted that disheveled hairdo she had when she kissed the Starkiller for the first/last time, and then repainted the whole figure. Read Insidious Customs own review of this action figure at his blog located here: http://insidiouscustoms.blogspot.com/2010/08/juno-eclipse-casual-attire-custom.html You can view his ebay profile page here: http://myworld.ebay.com/snake-eyes0217/ To see his current auctions listed on ebay click here: http://shop.ebay.com/snake-eyes0217/m.html?_nkw=&_armrs=1&_from=&_ipg=&_trksid=p3686 To see what he has available for sale on his Etsy page click here: http://www.etsy.com/shop/insidiouscustoms If you are interested in having a commission piece made you can reach him by email at: [email protected] _____________________________________________________________ CUSTOMIZER SPOTLIGHT #10:starwarsgeek171 Hello everyone. Yes, I know it has been a while since we have posted one of these. We have been waiting for responses from customizers for some of the action figures we are still waiting to post, but today I am happy to present starwarsgeek171 and his Tantive IV Co-Pilot. starwarsgeek171 has been a seller on ebay since 2004. His Tantive IV Co-Pilot looks great next to my Jeremoch Colton action figure. Together I have them both flying my vintage Rebel Fleet Transport Ship. TANTIVE IV CO-PILOT by starwarsgeek171 You can see the profile page of starwarsgeek171 here: http://myworld.ebay.com/starwarsgeek171?ssPageName=ADME:X:RTQ:US:1181 You can buy starwarsgeek171 customs at his ebay page located here: http://shop.ebay.com/starwarsgeek171/m.html?_nkw=&_armrs=1&_from=&_ipg= _____________________________________________________________ CUSTOMIZER SPOTLIGHT #11: darthjohnboystoys Hello everyone. So happy we can showcase another Customizer's Spotlight for you all. We just received a response from customizer darthjohnboystoys and got the go ahead to post a really fun custom, darthjohnboystoys Zombie Stormtrooper. darthjohnboystoys has been a seller on ebay since 2004 and playing with his Zombie Stormtrooper just makes me want to go and customize a small zombie stormtrooper army. ZOMBIE STORMTROOPER by darthjohnboystoys You can see the profile page of darthjohnboystoys here: http://myworld.ebay.com/darthjohnboystoys?ssPageName=ADME:X:CEM:US:1181 You can buy darthjohnboystoys customs at his ebay page located here: http://shop.ebay.com/darthjohnboystoys/m.html?_nkw=&_armrs=1&_from=&_ipg=&_trksid=p3686 Background image created by Star Wars artist Joe Hogan. You can see more of his great Star Wars art at his blog located at: http://iwillbeastarwarsartist.blogspot.com/ and at Joe Hogan's webpage located here: http://xjapanrox.deviantart.com/gallery/ and here: http://joehoganart.com/ Straight out of Joe Schreiber's "Death Troopers" _____________________________________________________________ CUSTOMIZER SPOTLIGHT #12: JUSTIN COOK aka YAK_CHEWIE Can't tell you how happy we are to present you with another edition of our Customizer Spotlight. Justin Cook, who is also known in the Yakface Forums as Yak_Chewie is by far one of the most talented and creative customizers out there. Anyone looking for inspiration for a custom action figure or an action figure recipe needs to look no further, Yak_Chewie has more recipes than a cookbook. His great body of work has already landed him a spot on our "Customs I Wish I Owned" page and if you watch the video we posted of his customs you'll immediately see that his body of work is something special. Yak_Chewie is an administrator over at Yakface Forums and he oversees the custom creations part of the forum. He is also the creator of "The Enloe Chronicles" which is probably known to be one of the most famous Star Wars photonovels there is. We recently mentioned on our blog that we participated this year in Yakface's Secret Santa and showed you the Zombie Jedi gift that we sent out to Mungo Baobab. Well, I can't express how happy we were when we received our yellow plastic bubble mailer and saw the name J. Cook in the upper left hand corner of the package. We were even more excited when we could feel not one but two action figures inside the package. Below is a quick video showing the joy a great customizing activity can bring when you participate in one of the community projects you can find located at a customizing forum. Yak_Chewie sent us these two incredibly awesome action figures for Christmas: JEDI MASTER by Yak_Chewie We love the color scheme that was used on the sleeves and robes. It really brought out the potential for customizing the Starkiller action figure. SKIFF GUARD by Yak_Chewie If you watch the video for Yak_Chewie in our "Customs I Wish I Owned" page, this figure you will find. Yes... I realize I just talked like Yoda. For the last three years now, Dad participated in Yakface.com's Secret Santa event. This year, Dad was assigned Star Wars customizer Justin Cook aka Chewie as the recipient of his holiday custom creations. Chewie had us our first year participating in the event and he was kind enough to send us two custom action figures rather than just the single required figure the event promoted. Dad wanted to return the favor when he participated in this year's event. Dad thought Justin would appreciate two unique Star Wars zombies.  Off went the figures and we awaited to see who our Secret Santa would be.  Dad was floored when he saw who our Secret Santa was...and even further blown away when he saw what was inside the package that was sent.  Chewie was our Secret Santa and he had sent us three Star Wars custom action figures.  He also sent us Dad's favorite figure of his, Kelos!  Also included in the package was an Utai Traveler and one cool looking Weequay.  The paint apps on the Utai really excentuated the sculpt of the figure.  The Weequay's paint had beautiful contrasts and masterful use of paint washes.  The gift was so generous.  Thank so much, Justin.  Dad's going to be sporting a permagrin for months YAKFACE.COM SECRET SANTA  CUSTOM ACTION FIGURES created by CHEWIE "WEEQUAY" created by Chewie   "UTAI TRAVELER" created by CHEWIE   "KRELOS" created by CHEWIE  SECRET SANTA FIGURES SENT:  Abyssin & Vurk Zombies  created by Darth Daddy These are links to see more of Chewie's work:  Yakface Forums viewtopic.php?f=14&t=80&start=1455 (great place to find action figure recipes)  The Custom Alliance http://www.thecustomalliance.com/cook/default.asp The Photonovel Alliance (The Enloe Chronicles) http://www.thephotonovelalliance.com/pn ... icles.html (for a good read...) Customs I Wish I Owned http://customsforthekid.blogspot.com/p/star-wars-customs-i-wish-i-owned.html Click the link below to see other Secret Santa figures posted on the Yak_face Forums this year: http://www.yakfaceforums.com/phpBB3/viewtopic.php?f=14&t=1101&start=345 _____________________________________________________________ CUSTOMIZER SPOTLIGHT #13: PARASITE COLLECTIBLES We saw the "Mandalorian Renegade Traveler" created by Parasite Collectibles on Ebay recently and we really liked the paint scheme and parts mix. Once we saw the opening helmet and the blue sunken eyes underneath, we knew we wanted to bid on him. Thankfully, we were also the winning bidders on the item and this figure now rests among my other cool custom action figures. Wayne J. Bunce Jr. (a.k.a. Parasite Collectibles) has unique designs, mixing parts from different toy lines to create his custom action figures. Wayne says he prefers making Mandalorians over Jedi or any other Star Wars character and says he is constantly striving to improve his skills so he can sell a better product. Mandalorian Renegade Traveler by Parasite Collectibles   PARASITE COLLECTIBLES custom action figures can be viewed at: http://www.starwarsspace.com/madalorianoutpost.mysite.com You can email PARASITE COLLECTIBLES at: convoysreturn @yahoo.com Or just visit his ebay page at: http://myworld.ebay.com/parasitecollectibles/ _____________________________________________________________ CUSTOMIZER SPOTLIGHT #14: WRAITHNINE Wraithnine is a 40 year old customizer from the southeast coast of Essex, UK who has been customizing Star Wars figures and vehicles for about 3 1/2 years now. He mainly creates custom action figures of astromechs and clone troopers, but along with the astromech we purchased, we were able to obtain some awesome looking Mandalorians that he recently created too. Wraithnine not only spends his time customizing, he also reviews Star Wars products on Youtube under the name Rasputin37. Wraithnine is currently a moderator on www.imperialshipyards.net and has been a die hard Star Wars fan since '77 . When we saw these figures for sale on Imperial Shipyards, we knew we wanted to add them to our collection. R7-A4 by Wraithnine   Wraithnine is well known for his custom astromechs and it isn't hard to see why.   We love Wraithnine's use of water slide decals to enhance his custom action figures. He did a great job using water slide decals on the head of this astromech. R7-A4 was turned into a trading card by Kessel Run Imports. FYNN ST'ANN by Wraithnine These Mandos are awesome. Great paint applications and again masterful use of the water slide decals. DHUR' KAN by Wraithnine   It's cool to see how Wraithnine used the Pre Vizsla action figure to create two totally unique action figures. Mandalorian Bounty Hunter Kel Sha'rak by Wraithnine See these action figures that we own in Episode 7 of the Kessel Run Review. These next two droids were both created by Star Wars action figure customizer Wraithnine.  When Dad heard that Wraithnine was selling the R2-C2 that he created, Dad thought it would be cool if we gave him a home next to the Ziro the Hutt that he created.  Dad bought him right away as a birthday present for my ninth birthday back in October.  What's even cooler was that Wraithnine sent me a R2-T8 astromech as a birthday gift from him.  Thanks so much Jay! That was very generous of you.  The droid is a shining example of why you are the astromech king! I love seeing Ziro and R2-C2 next to each other.  Your droids make my room seem magical.  "Ziro's Droid R2-C2" created by Wraithnine Ziro the Hutt created by Darth Daddy "R2-T8" created by Wraithnine "CLONE WARS DROIDS" created by Wraithine Customs D-SQUAD created by Wraithnine  So I have added D-Squad to my collection thanks to the "Astromech King". Yes, Star Wars customizer Wraithnine recently created the five-member droid squad formed by the Galactic Republic during the Clone Wars, that consisted of QT-KT, U9-C4, R2-D2, M5-BZ, and Corporal WAC-47. Led by Colonel Meebur Gascon, D-Squad was sent to steal an encryption module from a Providence-class carrier/destroyer. This fun group appeared on Star Wars: The Clone Wars in the following episodes: "Secret Weapons", "A Sunny Day in the Void", "Missing in Action" and "Point of No Return". These episodes were a lot of fun to watch. These figures are really special to me because I was interviewed on the Voice of the Republic podcast with Dad the same night voice actor Ben Drisdin (WAC-47) was interviewed and I got to talk with Ben that night.  WAC-47 was my favorite character from those episodes and it's really cool that I was able to add this whole set of droids to my collection. M5-BZ  & Colonel Meebur Gascon created by Wraithnine WAC-47 created by Wraithnine U9-C4 created by Wraithnine QT-KT created by Wraithnine R2-D2 created by Wraithnine D-SQUAD created by Wraithnine Star Wars customizer Wraithnine's 501st troopers: (from left to right) Dogma, Hardcase, Jesse, Tup,  and Kix. "CLONE COMMS OFFICER" created by WRAITHNINE Wraithnine Customs on Facebook: https://www.facebook.com/WraithnineCustoms You can see more custom action figures from Wraithnine here on Imperial Shipyards: http://www.imperialshipyards.net/SMF/index.php?topic=768.0 Wraithnine has a channel on Youtube under the name of Rasputin37 that you can find here: http://www.youtube.com/user/rasputin37 He posts as Wraithnine on Rebelscum.com here: http://threads.rebelscum.com/showflat.php?Cat=&Number=4418696&page=0&view=collapsed&sb=5&o=93&fpart=1#4418696 _____________________________________________________________ CUSTOMIZER SPOTLIGHT #15: OMAR RIVERA The latest customizer we'd like to introduce you all to is Omar Rivera from Puerto Rico. When this husband and father of two isn't busy making his awesome Star Wars action figures, he works as an art and history teacher and as a pastor as well. Dad first saw his customs on ebay when Omar had three stunning Padme Amidala action figures that were just incredible to set eyes upon. We didn't have any money at the time, so somebody else won the figures and let's just say that the somebody who is out there is one lucky individual. Fortunately, the following week we did have money when Omar posted new figures up on ebay and they were really cool ones that one wouldn't want to pass up on. Omar openly states that customizing action figures is one of his passions and his passion is definitely visible in his work. Omar told us that he has created over 100 customs to date. So here are the three Star Wars custom action figures created by Star Wars customizer, Omar Rivera that you can find in my collection. Enjoy! Khaleen Hentz by Omar Rivera Khaleen Hentz was once a Separatist agent sent by Count Dooku to spy on Quinlan Vos, as a mole in his spy network. She later turned to the Galactic Republic and became the wife of Vos and the mother of his child. K'Kruhk "Dark Times" created by Omar Rivera K'Kruhk was a male WhiphidJedi who lived from around the end of the Galactic Republic to the time of the One Sith and the Second Imperial Civil War. The apprentice of Lilit Twoseas, K'Kruhk survived his Master's death during the Yinchorri Uprising and went on to serve with distinction in the Clone Wars. A disastrous loss of life at Teyr led K'Kruhk to question his cause, and he joined a dissident movement on Ruul. Betrayal by one of his own, however, caused him to reaffirm his absolute loyalty to the Republic and the Jedi High Council, and he would go on to serve on Saleucami in the final weeks of the Outer Rim Sieges. Despite countless brushes with death, K'Kruhk survived both the Clone Wars and the Great Jedi Purge, living to see the demise of the Galactic Empire and the return of the Jedi, albeit while in hiding from the agents of Darth Vader. Only when Luke Skywalker's New Jedi Order was well-established and the last elements of Palpatine's Empire destroyed did the Whiphid finally emerge from hiding. Some period after the Yuuzhan Vong War, K'Kruhk joined the New Jedi Order and was still active even past the rise of Darth Krayt, serving as a member of the Jedi High Council, and taking a leading role in the Jedi resistance to the ascendantSith. K'Kruhk's efforts were integral in forging an alliance between the Jedi, the Galactic Alliance Remnant and the Fel Empire. With the death of T'ra SaaatTaivas, K'Kruhk became the oldest and most experienced of the surviving Jedi, and participated in the alliance's final assault on the Sith-held Coruscant. Following the deaths of Darth Krayt and Roan Fel, K'Kruhk became one of the three Triumvirs of the restored Galactic Alliance. Thisspiasian Jedi created by Omar Rivera Queen Neeyutnee Queen Neeyutnee was a Humanfemalepolitician who ruled as the Monarch of Naboo during the tumultuous time of the Clone Wars. Elected in 21 BBY as the successor to Queen Jamillia, the very young but mature Neeyutnee harbored no illusions about the war and met problems with appropriate action. She became closely involved with the Naboo Royal Advisory Council, the Royal Security Forces, and BossRugor Nass of the Gungans, ensuring that her peaceful homeworld remained relatively unharmed by the war. Not long after ascending to the throne, Neeyutnee was faced with a subtle Trade Federationincursion when a Separatistbattle droid patrol was found in Naboo's grasslands. She worked swiftly with CaptainGregar Typho and SenatorPadmé Amidala to uncover the nature of the threat, and Amidala's investigations resulted in the discovery and eradication of a secret Separatist laboratory that had been recreating the Blue Shadow Virus on their world. When the Confederacy later sowed Gungan–Naboo tensions in an effort to invade Naboo, Neeyutnee again worked with Amidala and RepresentativeJar Jar Binks to avert the threat of invasion to their homeworld. Thanks to their combined efforts, the Confederate GeneralGrievous was forced to recall his battle droid army from Naboo, and Binks also restored the Gungans' alliance with Neeyutnee's regime. She later oversaw the Festival of Light in celebration of the 857th anniversary of Naboo's union with the Republic. Neeyutnee only served one term before stepping down as Naboo's monarch, and, by 19 BBY, she had been succeeded by Queen Apailana.  Queen Neeyutnee by Omar Rivera To go to Omar Rivera's ebay store click below: http://myworld.ebay.com/albalindaalba?ssPageName=ADME:X:RTQ:US:1181 _____________________________________________________________ CUSTOMIZER SPOTLIGHT #17: Peakob1 Yesterday was my birthday, and Dad knows how much I love the custom action figures created by Peakob1 (peek-O-B-One). You couldn't imagine my surprise when I opened up my birthday present and it was a box full of Peakob1 action figures. Especially when they were action figures I used to only dream to one day own. I created a video of my new birthday presents that showcase the figures with pictures that were taken by Peakob1. Thanks Chad for making it possible. Chad Peak (aka: Peakob1 or CAP) has been a Star Wars fan all his life. He makes customs for the love of the hobby and you won't find a more dedicated fan. He hopes one day that he can have an entire custom collection simply because it is personalized to him and he never seeks financial gain by doing his customs, although he has done a few commissions at reasonable prices. He started customizing in '95. He doesn't count some of the vintage Ewoks that he colored over with black and brown markers as a kid. He refers to his style of customizing as "hard sculpting" opposed to using sculpy to mold his own figures. He uses bits of existing parts and dremels those down to make a new result. He believes that it makes for a much stronger figure because he's a little like Jar Jar, "hesa clumsy" and often drops figures. Usually they don't break if he builds them properly. He finds customizing very exciting and he has many projects on the horizon. Hope you enjoy the Peakob1 customs from my collection! He displays his customs on Yakface, Imperial Shipyards, Droids and Ewoks and Jedi Defender. CUSTOMIZER SPOTLIGHT #17: Peakob1   My Peakob1 video was featured on the front page of Imperial Shipyards. This post was also featured on Ed Johnson Presents: STAR WARS The Clone Chronicles (Webcomics & SW News). DASH RENDAR, LEEBO, & CHEWBACCA  (BOUNTY HUNTER DISGUISE)" created by Peak-OB1 Custom Creations "TEEBO" created by Peak-OB1 Custom Creations Hondo Ohnaka's Pirate Gang    A project started when Dad bought a Gwarm custom action figure from customizer Peakob1 for my collection .  After Hasbro released Hondo Ohnaka without any of his Weequay pirates, Dad toyed with the idea of creating Hondo's pirate gang. When Dad saw that his friend Star Wars customizer, Peakob1 had started to create some of the characters he was hoping to make, Dad commissioned his help in getting the project done.  Peakob1 is well known in the customizing community for his Clone Wars custom action figures and throughout the past year we formed a really good friendship. The two of them chatted about the Wars, figured out who was going to create what, and Dad got off the phone.  Then Dad grabbed some parts that he bought a while back off of a shelf in the corner of our kitchen, and he started to create two pirates of his own.  It was such a fun project.  It was the first time Dad worked on a project with another customizer other than me and he said it was an awesome experience.  The figures are just incredible! I only wish Hasbro would create them so all of you could have them too.  Dad said that this project will definitely go down as one of his favorites even if it did take forever to get group shots done. "Dagu Flask, Turk Falso, Barb Mentir, Gwarm and Pikk Mukmuk" created by Peak-OB1 Custom Creations All other pirates created by "Customs for the Kid" All other pirates created by "Customs for the Kid" ORIGINAL POST The Hondo Ohnaka Pirate Gang created by Peakob1 and Darth Daddy was featured in the Customizer Spotlight over at Yakface.com. The Hondo Ohnaka Pirate Gang group photo of Peakob1's and Darth Daddy's customs was featured on the front page of Imperial Shipyards. Peakob1's three pirates were featured on the front page of Imperial Shipyards. "DROIDS" action figures created by Peakob1 I picked up two of these action figures pictured below in an eBay auction and the other two I got directly from the source. Peakob1 had recently updated his Mungo Baobab action figure and sold us his original when Dad commissioned Peakob1 to make us a Jord Dusat to go with the Thall Joben and Kea Moll we won in the auction. I'm really happy that I have some custom action figures from the Droids cartoon now too. Especially ones that fit in so well with the rest of my collection.   MUNGO BAOBAB created by Peakob1 "Thall Joben, Jord Dusat & Kea Moll" created by Peakob1 "Jann Tosh" created by Peakob1 THE CLONE WARS  "Peppi Bow" custom action figure  created by Peak-OB1 Custom Creations  UNDEAD NIGHTSISTER Although I already have a lot of customs by Star Wars customizer Peakob1 (peek-O-B-One), when he asked me if I wanted his latest creation, I jumped at the chance to pick up this incredibly cool Undead Nightsister that he created.  The detail in the sculpting and the paint applications are just truly amazing.  I can't wait to get the Target 3-pack that should be hitting stores soon so I can get a proper Dathomir set up going.  Look out Grievous! "Undead Nightsister" by Peak-OB1 Custom Creations All other Nightsister action figures created by "Customs for the Kid" The world Dathomir holds many dark secrets -- such as ancient incantations that could raise the dead. When the planet was attacked by the Separatists during the Clone Wars, the most ancient and knowledgeable of the Nightsister clan used her power to stir the bodies of the Nightsisters graveyard. From preserved cocoons built to resemble the trees of Dathomir emerged mummified warriors. The shrieking zombies mindlessly attacked their enemies, swarming over battle droids in droves. Peakob1's Undead Nightsister was featured on the front page of Imperial Shipyards. Peakob1 has already added so many wonderful action figures to my collection and believe me there are still more to come.  The latest two custom action figure is an updated look for a character as he appeared later in Season 5. While Hasbro does have plans to release a version of this Sith character, they plan on releasing him in a realistic sculpt featuring only 5 points of articulation figure that upon viewing the prototype we just weren't very impressed with.  Compared to Peakob1's version, it doesn't hold up.  Peakob1's creation is a version of Darth Maul that I wish everyone had a chance to obtain and I couldn't be happier to be the one to have this figure in my collection.  It is the epitome of a missed opportunity by Hasbro. "CLONE WARS DARTH MAUL & MANDALORIAN SUPER COMMANDO" created by Peak-OB1 Custom Creations "Savage Opress & Maul Mandos" created by Darth Daddy of "Customs for the Kid" "Jakoli, Sixtat, Sinrich, Mantu, Derrown & Cad Bane" created by Peak-OB1 Custom Creations CLONE WARS  "BULDUGA & ONCA"  created by Peak-OB1 Cuom Creations "Droogan" created by Peak-OB1 Custom Creations "CASSIE CRYAR, BANNAMU  & MASTER SINUBE" created by Peak-OB1 Custom Creations "Ione Marcy" created by Darth Daddy A few years ago I featured a Cut Lawquane custom action figure created by Peakob1. The character was always our favorite clone trooper from the Clone Wars series.  When Peakob1 recently made a Suu Lawquane custom action figure, I knew I wanted to add it to my collection.  She features a 100% sculpt by Peakob1, who has created some of the coolest Clone Wars custom action figures out there. "Cut, Suu, Jek & Shaeeah Lawquane" created by Peakob1 Custom Creations One of the coolest surprise gifts came form Star Wars customizer Peak-OB1 who sent me a Shaeeah Lawquane custom action figure to complete the Lawquane family for my Clone Wars collection. "JAYBO HOOD, AMIT NOLOFF &  RE-PROGRAMMED BATTLE DROIDS" created by Peak-OB1 Custom Creations "RAMY & TRANDOSHAN HUNTER" created by Peak-OB1 Custom Creations "Sai' Torr Kal Fas" created by created by Peak-OB1 Custom Creations "SUGI & RUMI PARAMITA" created by created by Peak-OB1 Custom Creations "DUCHESS SATINE KRYZE" created by created by Peak-OB1 Custom Creations "ASSAJ VENTRESS -  BOUNTY HUNTER" created by Peak-OB1 Custom Creations "Dr. Nuvo Vindi" created by created by Peak-OB1 Custom Creations "Sy Snootles" created by Peak-OB1 "Ziro the Hutt" created by Darth Daddy "Gregor - The Dishwasher & WAC-47" created by Peak-OB1 Custom Creations "D-Squad" created by Wraithnine (except for WAC-47 created by Peak-OB1 Custom Creations) "Clone Commander Gregor & WAC-47" created by Peak-OB1 Custom Creations "D-Squad" created by Wraithnine (except for WAC-47) "WAC-47" created by Peak-OB1 Custom Creations "NIMM" created by Peak-OB1 Custom Creations "GOTAL" created by Peak-OB1 Custom Creations THE CLONE WARS  "Rafa & Trace Martez" custom action figures created by Peak-OB1 Custom Creations Peakob1 on Facebook: https://www.facebook.com/Peakob1 Peakob1 on Yakface.com: http://www.yakfaceforums.com/phpBB3/viewtopic.php?f=14&t=5631 Peakob1 on Droids & Ewoks: http://droidsandewoks.forumotion.com/customs-and-art-f13/ Peakob1 on Jedi Defender: http://www.jedidefender.com/yabbse/index.php?topic=20796.0 To go to the ebay page of Peakob1 click below: http://myworld.ebay.com/peakob1/?_trksid=p4340.l2559 _____________________________________________________________ CUSTOMIZER SPOTLIGHT #17: Darth Phantom Ever since we started creating custom Star Wars action figures, we have been participating in the Secret Santa exchange that is held every year over at Yakface.com. Not only is it a great way to get into the spirit of Christmas, but it is also a great way for customizers to acquire each others works of art. This year our Secret Santa was none other than talented customizer Darth Phantom from Germany and he sent us some super cool action figures this year. So what's the deal with this event, and how does it work? Well if you wanted to get involved, you must have been a registered forum member prior to September 1, 2011 to be eligible. They do not want to risk anyone signing up for this just to get a free custom from another forum member and not fulfill their end of the deal. In early October, 2011 we were contacted via email with the information of another Yakface forum member who was also participating. Then we made a custom figure for that person and mailed it to them in time for Christmas. The deadline to sign up was 11:59 AM CST, on October 1, 2011. So obviously the ship has sailed if you wanted to get involved, but hopefully this post will be an incentive for you all to become forum members if you aren't already so you all can participate next year. SECRET SANTA CUSTOMS created by DARTH PHANTOM Our favorite in the bunch is this Jedi created by Darth Phantom. His beard reminded us a lot of Jedi Master Jorus C'baoth. This Hoth Han Solo created by Darth Phantom is super cool. I love the knife attached to right arm of this 501st Clone trooper created by Darth Phantom. He'll fit in great with my army of 501st troopers. THANKS DARTH PHANTOM!!! _____________________________________________________________ CUSTOMIZER SPOTLIGHT #18: SILLOF This summer, Sillof ran out of room in his workshop and was looking to sell some of his custom action figures. I have always been a huge fan of his work, so when I found out that I actually had a chance to own one of his action figures I jumped at the chance. I loved Sillof's various renditions of Chewbacca, and I was really happy when I was able to acquire his 1st Lt. Chuck Backer from his World War line of figures. It's the only 6" custom action figure that I own, but I totally love it. It's one of my favorite pieces. 1st Lt. CHUCK BACKER created by Sillof This 6" custom action figure created by Sillof can now be found in my personal collection. 1st Lt. Chuck Backer was created in 2008 and was featured in Sillof's Star Wars 1942 line. Sillof is pronouced "Si" (like Psi or Sci-fi ) and "llof" (like cough or pilaf) and no it is not his real name. He's a high school history and film teacher. He has no formal art training, other then art classes in middle school. If something turns out good, he says it is just from years of practice, or luck. He started building custom figures and dioramas when he was a kid. He opened a website in 1999. It was then called "The Wookie's Workshop" and "The Wook's Workshop". before he had his current website www.Sillof.com. His work has been featured online on blogs, websites, and online news services, newspapers at the local, national and international levels, in books and magazines nationally and world wide. His customs have even been featured on television in local news, national news, cable, and overseas, in independent films as props, costumes, and set designs. His action figures have been publicly displayed at contests, fairs, & conventions including 3 of the 4 Star Wars Celebrations. Most recently his work has been seen in Toyfare and Star Wars Insider Magazines. Unlike other customizers, Sillof has gotten away from faithfully creating characters and has begun to redesign these figures in various time periods or aesthetics. He creates these works out of admiration for their original designs, but rather than just recreate another person's work he enjoys putting his own spin on classic characters, as well as creating his own new characters. This is all just the creations of his spare time. He starts with a general concept or direction (samurai for example) Then he brainstorms what he wants. This is mostly done in his brain. Then he makes a list of adjectives and descriptions of the character, maybe a little back story and the physical elements he wants to include in the figure. He then begins the actual construction. He usually works on all of them at once. So while the glue or paint is drying on one he works on another. Some parts of the figures are recycled from existing toys. They are cut off and glued together. Sometimes he sculpts over the old toy parts. Sometimes he dremels down the part using it more as an armature and sculpts over it. Often times, he will sculpt an entire new piece. Some of the figures are completely built from scratch. It really just depends on what he wants, needs, and what he has on hand in his various drawers of parts. He sculpts using a 2 part epoxy polymer sculpting compound called Apoxie by Aves Studios. You mix 2 parts together and then in few hours it is hard a rock. It is not as easy to work with as sculpey but more then makes up for it with it's durability. Sillof says it gets easier to work with practice. You can see more custom action figures created by Sillof here: http://www.sillof.com/ We also recommend checking out his "Toy Wars" film series where he brings his action figures and dioramas to life at this link here: http://www.sillof.com/Toywars.htm Our CUSTOMIZER SPOTLIGHT post was featured on Ed Johnson Presents: NERD NEWS. _____________________________________________________________ CUSTOMIZER SPOTLIGHT #19: LUKE SPRYWALKER Luke Sprywalker hails from another father and son customizing team. He has been displaying his custom action figures since 2008 and has created some really noteworthy action figures. You need to check out the video Dad created of his action figures in our "Customs I Wish I Owned" page. He is one of the first friends we made when we began our custom action figure hobby and his work is always an inspiration around the house. Success in customizing sometimes relies on the artist having the right part for the job. We received this droid as a thank you from Luke Sprywalker when we sent him some much needed parts that he was looking for to complete a build. I was really excited when I got this custom in the mail, because I love droids and it was created by one of my all-time favorite artists. YELLOW DROID created by Luke Sprywalker Here is the Mandalorian I received from L.E. Spry aka Luke Spywalker as my Imperial Shipyards Secret Santa gift featuring a new bucket mash up, custom rifle so he can shoulder it, a soft goods strap, removable armor, greeblied out kama and fully weathered as if he lives for a good sand storm. Spywalker also made me a small dio/stand combo in his wonderful trash to treasure style.   A really incredibly cool Secret Santa gift.  When it comes to custom action figures, they don't get any better than this.  Believe me, I've seen  a lot of customs. "MANDO" created by Luke Sprywalker The head is a mash-up of the newest TFU trooper helmet that was cast by Clonehead and a Jango Fett faceplate from SithHappens.       Click the links below to check out Luke Sprywalker's latest customs: http://s167.photobucket.com/albums/u130/sk8twistedtrees/Jedi%20customs/ http://www.imperialshipyards.net/SMF/index.php?topic=1200.0 http://www.imperialshipyards.net/SMF/index.php?topic=1202.0 http://www.imperialshipyards.net/SMF/index.php?topic=1212.0 http://www.yakfaceforums.com/phpBB3/viewtopic.php?f=14&t=2971 _____________________________________________________________ CUSTOMIZER SPOTLIGHT #20: RUNDOWN  Rundown Customs....aka ric.sea.jedi....aka Sean....started on ebay buying and selling vintage Star Wars when he came across some custom Star Wars figures and became interested in what he saw. He watched many customizers for a long time and began his research. Finally, he picked up a paintbrush in 2007. Since then Sean has made over 300 custom action figures. More than 200 of which have been private commissions. Rundown says that he truly enjoys the hobby and enjoys requests as well duplicating characters not yet made in toy form. Mandalorian Female by Rundown To buy custom action figures created by Rundown visit his ebay page where you can also contact him about commission work. To see more customs created by Rundown you can visit his forum thread over at Imperial Shipyards. _____________________________________________________________ CUSTOMIZER SPOTLIGHT #21: BL4CK5H33P It's been a long time since we did one of these posts, but it wasn't for a lack of wanting to. Truth is the archives were deleted due to an interface change on Blogger. We hit the edit button to update the archives and it was gone with a hit of the button. So after a month of rebuilding the archives, we have an update. BL4CK5H33P is a newcomer to the forums, but his customs look like the work of a veteran. When we saw a few of his customs for sale, we jumped at the chance to purchase two of our favorite pieces of his. These figures look great and we recommend checking out his forum thread and sales thread to see if anything calls out to you. This customizer will be one to watch. Smuggler by BL4CK5H33P    Dathomiri/Human Hybrid Nightbrother  by BL4CK5H33P   BL4CK5H33P's Custom Thread:   http://www.imperialshipyards.net/SMF/index.php?topic=7776.0  BL4CK5H33P's Sales Thread:   http://www.imperialshipyards.net/SMF/index.php?topic=7836.0 _____________________________________________________________ CUSTOMIZER SPOTLIGHT #22: Stronox On Saturday, when Dad ran down to the mailbox, he came back into the house with a gift from one of my all-time favorite customizers, Stronox. When Dad first started customizing, one of the first friends that he made in the community was Stronox, who has some of the best customs in the Star Wars galaxy. If you ask anyone who frequents the customizing forums who their top ten favorite customizers are, I bet you Stronox would be on everybody's lists.  His paint applications are out of this world and his attention to detail is second to none.  He started off creating toys for his son and this later led to a lot of commission work from fans. Lately he has taken a break from commissions to work on more personal projects, so anyone that has a toy created by Stronox is extremely lucky to have one.  When he first started creating customs, his work was predominantly Star Wars characters, but his most recent work features more G.I. Joe, popular super heroes, and a customizer line called Desolation. I was always a huge fan of Stronox's version of Vilmarh Grahrk, so getting a Villie created by him was about as cool as it gets.  Thanks so much Rob!  He's awesome! Vilmarh Grahrk by Stronox You can get to the blog for Stronox by clicking the link below: http://stronoxcustoms.blogspot.com  You can see more Stronox by clicking the link below: http://www.yakfaceforums.com/phpBB3/viewtopic.php?t=5253 Go to his ebay sales page: http://myworld.ebay.com/stronox117/ _____________________________________________________________ CUSTOMIZER SPOTLIGHT #23: INCOM aka MR.BLACK When Incom isn't working in business services, this customizer hailing from Hengelo, Netherlands is busy making some of the sweetest customs you'll ever come across.  His "Weequay Swoop Bike Racer" is one of our all-time favorite Star Wars customs.  When we saw that he was offering it for sale on Action Figure Customs Marketplace, Dad bought it right away for my birthday.   The bike and figure are just pure eye candy, from the detailed paint work to the super cool Aurebesh water slide decals, we just love it.  We always wanted a Star Wars custom action figure from this artist, but we never thought in a million years that our favorite piece of his would one day end up in my collection. Weequay Swoop Bike Racer created by Incom   Click any of the links below for more customs from Incom:   http://s740.photobucket.com/home/incomscustoms/allalbums  http://incom-t65.blogspot.com/  _____________________________________________________________ CUSTOMIZER SPOTLIGHT #24: MASTERCLONER Usually we have a lot to say about the customizers featured in our "Customizer Spotlight" feauture, but this customizer is more of a mystery.  We sent an email out to try and get some more information about Mastercloner, but we are still waiting for a response.  If we get one, we will update this post and fill you all in.  So here is what we do know.  Mastercloner is a Star Wars customizer on ebay and has been a seller there since 2005.  He is from the United States, and he makes really cool customs.  We bought this custom before summer began and we have been waiting to feature it ever since. Darth Krayt, born A'Sharad Hett, was a Humanmale who served as a Jedi Master in the waning days of the Galactic Republic. The son of legendary Jedi KnightSharad Hett, he eventually became the Padawan of Jedi Masters Ki-Adi-Mundi, and later, An'ya Kuro. When he was only a teen, Sharad Hett was murdered by the Jedi assassin Aurra Sing, who was later defeated in a duel by a young A'Sharad Hett. During the Clone Wars, he served the Republic as a General and established himself as a charismatic leader who often led his troops from the front. He eventually became friends with the young Anakin Skywalker and helped Anakin come to terms with the destruction which had been wrought by the galaxy-wide war. A'Sharad took part in key conflicts during the war such as the Battle of Boz Pity and Siege of Saleucami. He managed to survive the Clone Wars, and was one of the few Jedi known to have escaped the Great Jedi Purge in 19 BBY. A'Sharad Hett eventually made his way back to his homeworld of Tatooine where he vowed to wage a private war against the new Galactic Empire. However, after a confrontation with Jedi Master Obi-Wan Kenobi, he was exiled from Tatooine and later discovered that it was Anakin Skywalker who became the Sith Lord Darth Vader, who had aided in the annihilation of the Jedi Order. A'Sharad blamed himself for the destruction of the Jedi Order and became a bounty hunter. During one of his missions, he found himself on Korriban, where he trained as a Sith under the tutelage of the Dark Lord XoXaan. Hett eventually fell to the dark side after capture and torture by the Yuuzhan Vong and soon proclaimed himself Dread Lord and Dark Lord of the Sith, taking the name "Darth Krayt". As Krayt, he became the founder and leader of the One Sith. As Krayt, he rebuilt the Sith Order and kept its existence hidden from the Jedi by cloaking their presence on Korriban. To survive, Krayt spent many years in stasis before reemerging to form an alliance with Moff Nyna Calixte and to spark the Sith–Imperial War that led to the destruction of the Galactic Federation of Free Alliances. At the climax of the war, Krayt deposed Emperor Roan Fel and brought about the destruction of the New Jedi Order. Darth Krayt ruled the galaxy with an iron fist for seven years before the alliance between rightful Emperor Roan Fel and Galactic Alliance admiral Gar Stazi threatened his usurped rule. Furthermore, Krayt discovered the existence and survival of a Skywalker: Cade. Krayt feared that with these deteriorating conditions and his bad health would lead to his demise before his dream was finished, and sent about the hunt for Cade Skywalker. However, during a skirmish on Had Abbadon, Krayt was stabbed and sent hurtling off a cliff. The Sith Lord's powers proved strong, however, when they saved his life. Darth Krayt was then approached by Darth Wyyrlok, his most trusted advisor, who presumably murdered Krayt, believing the Dread Lord would lead to the Sith Order's destruction. But, even as he was inactive, Krayt's ideals were being carried out by Wyyrlok in his place. Krayt later healed his body from his near-death experience. Overcoming the taint of his armor, he called out to all those across the galaxy who had touched the dark side, signaling his return. With the aid of loyal Sith and a new breed of Sith troopers, Krayt retook Coruscant, slaying Darth Wyyrlok in the process, and began making preparations to rebirth the galaxy through war. However, in the final battle, he once again attempted to turn Cade Skywalker. He failed to do so, which allowed Cade to permanently kill him. Ashard Hett created by Mastercloner "ADMIRAL TRENCH" created by MASTERCLONER Click the link below to visit Mastercloner's ebay page: http://myworld.ebay.com/mastercloner&ssPageName=STRK:MEFSX:SELLERID&_trksid=p3984.m1543.l2533 _____________________________________________________________ CUSTOMIZER SPOTLIGHT #24: DARTH DUSTY Darth Dusty is an artist that has been drawing, painting, and sculpting for over twenty-five years, and customizing for over ten. He mainly enjoys customizing figures from the expanded universe of Star Wars, and creating characters of his own, but also indulges in other areas of Pop Culture. The goal is to give people something rare, and unique, and also to challenge himself to make customs of characters that may never see the light of day on a store shelf. Creating figures for adult collectors, he loves the use of cloth goods, and hand sculpting new parts. Darth Dusty uses many materials, such as, Acrylic Paints, Apoxy Sculpt, Casting Resins, and even puffy paint, as key elements in each creation. Darth Dusty researches many of the figures he plans to build to get as much accuracy as possible without compromising the functionality of the action figure. Fairly retired from doing commissioned figures, he loves hearing ideas on what figures to make. Darth Dusty keeps a list of characters on the back burner, so expect to see plenty more figures to come. Below is the "Force Unleashed II Starkiller" custom that Dad bought from Darth Dusty to give me for my Christmas present this year.  The whole diorama is just incredible.  Especially the two charred Stormtroopers that he included.  I just love this custom action figure diorama! "The Force Unleashed II Starkiller" created by Darth Dusty   Darth Dusty's Facebook page: http://www.facebook.com/DarthDustyCustoms eBay seller: thinkinink1972 _____________________________________________________________ CUSTOMIZER SPOTLIGHT #25: DARTH OPTIMUS Yakface.com's Secret Santa event has always been a huge provider of Christmas spirit in our home and was a real influence on Dad's decision to run a 2012 Secret Santa over at Imperial Shipyards. Darth Optimus created the Falleen custom action figure pictured below for Dad's Secret Santa gift for participating in the Imperial Shipyard's Secret Santa event Dad hosted.  We were really impressed with the action figure when we got in the mail earlier this month.  It's been torture waiting to post this figure and having to hold out until our other Secret Santa action figures arrive.  The figure even came with a great short story attached to it.  Dad was really happy that we had another Black Sun member in the house.  Especially since Dad had recently created a Guri.   Hope you enjoy the Falleen action figure as much as we do.  Thank you, Mike! Darth Optimus hails from Texas. His name reflects his love of both Star Wars & Transformers. Darth Optimus works in the animal care field and is married with two children. He has been customizing off & on for 12 years....more so in the last two than in the last ten. He started out painting Battle Tech minis and progressed to making custom figs from Toy Biz X-men figs.  Darth Optimus next went to Transformers and completed probably two dozen figures....including a team of Junkions. Most recently he made the transition to Star Wars figures due to swappability with the different 3 3/4" lines...as well as, the possibility to do vehicles. Fan Fiction Story by Darth Optimus: "The Falleen known as Xeven was a young, promising, up-and-coming mercenary serving a long-term contract with Black Sun during the Clone Wars. After the execution of Order 66, the newly-formed Empire placed bounties on the heads of all surviving Jedi. The Black Sun organization picked up several deathmark contracts and assigned several in-house hunters to the task of finding the Jedi. Xeven was among those chosen. A capable tracker, Xeven found and dispatched several Padawans and minor Knights over the next three years. His confidence grew with each victory and he believed that no Jedicould defeat him. He was wrong. An encounter with an unidentified Jedi (but surely of Master level) left Xeven without both his hands. Turning to a Black Sun affiliated cyberneticist, Xeven chose to utilize hands from a Magna Guard series droid as replacements. Xeven meshed quickly with the robotics, and was on the hunt within a week. He is constantly on the look out for the Jedi who maimed him. Xeven's weapons of choice are fairly basic. He prefers the Relby-v10 micro grenade launcher favored by Trandoshans as his main weapon. He carries an onyx-handled Westar-34 blaster pistol on his hip as back up. The weapon is the same style carried by his idol, Jango Fett. Lastly, Xeven carries an adamantium battle blade that has been in his clan for generations." "XEVEN" created by Darth Optimus Darth Optimus even included this custom Star Wars stand. RECIPE: Topknot: AOTC Aurra Sing Head: Comic Pack Prince Xizor Torso, Arms and Kama/Sarrong: TCW Embo Hands: TCW Magna Guard Legs: TFU Kota's Elite Large Gun: TVC Bossk Pistol and Holster: TVC Jango Fett Melee Blade: Parts bin  SECRET SANTA SENT: SECRET SANTA MANDO created by Darth Daddy _____________________________________________________________ CUSTOMIZER SPOTLIGHT #26: Darksider80 When Dad organized the 2012 Secret Santa over at Imperial Shipyards, Darksider80 stated that he wanted to participate early in the sign-up process, but forgot to send his mailing address before the deadline arrived.  Dad matched everyone up, and then after all the emails were sent, Dad heard a response from him.  Dad felt bad leaving him out of the event, especially since he was relatively new to the custom action figure forum community.  The last thing Dad wanted was for this talented customizer to feel left out by a new community he was choosing to participate in.  As a solution Dad decided to create one extra figure and do a figure swap with Darksider80 on top of the one he was formally doing for the event.  After being totally wowed by the plethora of Star Wars custom figures on the internet Darksider80 was inspired to bust a couple out himself! The purpose of his blog is just to share his work, get feedback and make connections with other people who love Star Wars, toys, and creative expression as much as he does. He love comments, whether you love his stuff or downright hate it, so leave your opinions for him to see! He is always open to ideas and suggestions for new projects as well. Inside our package from Darksider80 was a Darth Zannah custom action figure from The Old Republic and masterfully produced at that.  Thanks so much  Noah.  She's gorgeous! DARTH ZANNAH "Zannah, known as "Rain" during her childhood, was a Human female from the planet Somov Rit. She was recruited to fight for the Jedi's Army of Light during the Ruusan campaign of the New Sith Wars but, after arriving on Ruusan, was separated from the group during a Sith attack and presumed dead. Unbeknownst to the Jedi, she had been saved and befriended by a member of the native Bouncerspecies called Laa. When the Brotherhood of Darkness later unleashed a planet-wide Force storm, Rain survived by instinctively enveloping herself and Laa with a bubble of Force energy. Not long afterward, the young girl watched as Laa was haplessly killed by Jedi scouts. Stricken with anger and grief, she unwittingly gave in to the dark side and murdered the Jedi. Her display of rage attracted the attention of the war's only surviving Dark Lord, Darth Bane, who decided to take her as his apprentice. Rain cast away the handle of her youth and instead embraced her birth name, becoming Darth Zannah. Zannah's preliminary Force training took place on the planet Ambria and involved the study of ancient Sith magic. In her tutelage under Darth Bane, Zannah executed a variety of missions designed to incite anarchist movements throughout the Galactic Republic, including manipulating the terrorist Anti-Republic Liberation Front into a botched assassination attempt on former Supreme Chancellor Tarsus Valorum. From Hetton, the ARLF's leader, Zannah also recovered information regarding the creation of holocrons, a secret highly sought by her Master, who later killed Hetton after Zannah tricked him into an attack on the Dark Lord. When the parasites that comprised Bane's body armor began to cause him concern, Zannah was tasked with infiltrating the Jedi Temple archives on Coruscant to obtain information about the creatures. Her mission complete, Zannah was surprised to encounter her cousin Darovit, who confessed that he had exposed her presence to the Jedi. Zannah fled Coruscant with him and met Darth Bane on Tython, where the Sith prepared to battle the pursuant Jedi. Despite their numbers, all of the Jedi were slain, although Bane was grievously wounded and on the brink of dying. Zannah returned with her Master to Ambria and demanded on threat of death that the local healer save the Dark Lord, which he agreed to do only after Zannah revealed the Sith presence on Ambria to the Jedi. She betrayed and killed the healer upon completion of the procedure and also used her power to drive Darovit mad. The respondent Jedi assumed that he was the Sith Lord they sought and killed him, effectively convincing the Jedi of the Sith's final eradication. With no surviving witnesses, the existence of Darth Zannah and her Master remained safely anonymous. The Sith relocated to Ciutric IV, and over the course of ten years, Zannah grew to be an accomplished Sith sorceress who equaled Darth Bane in strength. When she failed to confront him for the position of Dark Lord, Bane believed she lacked initiative. However, Zannah had already begun to contemplate his demise. On a mission to Doan, she learned of a Dark Jedi named Set Harth and enlisted the reluctant young man as her apprentice. Zannah returned with him to Ciutric IV to confront her own Master, only to find that Bane had been captured by the Doan Royal Guard. She then returned to Doan, where she infiltrated the place of Bane's imprisonment. She located Bane and fought him, but their duel ended in a draw when both were forced to flee the prison. Soon after, Bane, who had taken the Iktotchi Darth Cognus as his new apprentice, called Zannah to meet him on Ambria, where they dueled for the final time. Zannah was initially overwhelmed by her Master's attacks, but she was able to use her sorcery to injure him. As a last resort, Bane attempted to transfer his essence into her body, but was defeated when Zannah's spirit condemned his to the void of the dark side. Zannah then took Darth Cognus as her apprentice and continued Bane's legacy as Dark Lord of the Sith. "Darth Zannah" created by Darksider80  SECRET SANTA SENT: RODIAN SNOWSPEEDER PILOT created by Darth Daddy _____________________________________________________________ CUSTOMIZER SPOTLIGHT #27: Lucasclones Lucasclones is a customizer that dives into everything. Right now he's building mini-dioramas for his custom action figures. He customizes Star Wars, G.I. Joe, Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles, Desolation, and several other toy lines. He recently even created an H.P. Lovecraft inspired custom. He has an active Youtube channel complete with figure reviews, tutorials, and custom action figure debuts. Lucasclone's podcast has been a boon to the custom action figure community. Working with Imperial Shipyards administrator Tamer on his podcast Custom Action Figure News he made customizers accessible to their fans while getting some great tips on how to make our toys better. His recent addition of "Rountable" discusssions need to be archived for all interested in the artform. These discussions provide a free education  woth a fortune.  I can't even begin to list the many contributions Lucasclones has brought to the community.  Dad became friends with Lucasclones shortly after we appeared on CAFN.  Most of these figures from this post were the result of swaps that they have done through the years. Dad has always loved the "Eyeball" figures that Lucasclones made. They are some of Dad's favorite figures in my collection. PHASE I: ARC TROOPER "EYEBALL" created by LUCASCLONES PHASE II: ARC TROOPER "EYEBALL" created by LUCASCLONES PHASE I: ARC TROOPER "SPARK" created by LUCASCLONES PHASE I: ARC TROOPER "MONSTER" created by LUCASCLONES "DARKSIDE - AHSOKA TANO" ALTERNATE HEAD created by LUCASCLONES Like many collectors of The Clone Wars action figure line, we really wished Hasbro would have released Trandoshan hunting pods in their mini-rig line.  A few years ago, Star Wars customizer Lucasclones made a custom version of the vehicle, and it's the only one I've ever seen made.  If any start-up Star Wars 3-D printer artists want a cool vehicle to sell this would be one of them that I would like to see offered.  If Hasbro had made this I would have bought several. A few weeks ago, Lucasclones was advertising the two Trandoshan hunters pictured below for purchase on his Instagram account.  Dad shot him a text message and asked him if he still had the Trandoshan hunting pod that he had made.  We loved this custom 3 3/4" scale vehicle since the first time we saw it pictured in the Star Wars customizing forums on the web.  Not only did Lucasclones still have the hunting pod in his possession he was willing to part with it.  He even threw in the two advertised Trandoshan Hunters! The roll bar broke in shipping, but Dad was able to repair everything with a little bit of krazy glue.  I'm really happy the add this piece to my collection. "TRANDOSHAN HUNTERS  with HUNTING POD" created by Lucasclones For the link to lucasclones on Imperial Shipyards go to :   http://www.imperialshipyards.net/SMF/index.php?topic=3618.0  For the link to lucasclones on Flickr go to : http://www.flickr.com/photos/lucasclones/  For the link to lucasclones on Youtube go to : http://www.youtube.com/user/cha1man2?feature Go here to listen to the Custom Action Figure News podcast:   http://www.imperialshipyards.net/podcasts/index.html or http://lucasclonecustoms.blogspot.com/ If there is anything you would like him to feature on a future podcast be sure to let him know at: [email protected] _____________________________________________________________ CUSTOMIZER SPOTLIGHT #28:Hangarbay94 The first time we saw Hangarbay94's "Nar Shaddaa Interceptor Patrol Vehicle" we were just blown away.  The silhouette, the color, and the sheer amount of detail that was spread throughout it's entirety put this custom above anything we ever saw before.  The first words out of my mouth when I held it in my hands, "Dad, Hangarbay94's a much better customizer than you." I never saw anything like it.  The imagery was Star Wars meets Blade Runner.  The vehicle was just gorgeous.  I carried it around for two days straight.  I couldn't put it down.  I just loved looking at it.  The slide decal work and the weathering made this custom vehicle look camera ready, set to be used alongside other models and filmed to be in the next Star Wars movie. This vehicle is jam packed with play features too.  The features include a hook and crane that lowers out of the bottom of the vehicle fit for carrying a bundled load or for towing, the cockpit contains a rolling cage in the back seat of the cockpit to detain prisoners or be moved out of the way for regular passengers, opening doors, and all greatly accented by it's flashing lights and sirens.  The detailed paintwork on the super cool droid that came with it was the cherry on top. Julian aka Hangarbay94 is an avid Star Wars fan who has made a name for himself by customising vehicles and creating photo novels. His work is featured on Yakface and at Imperial Shipyards where he is also one of the forum moderators. His ongoing project is a graphic novelization of the classic PC game "X-Wing Alliance" which features a mixture of custom figures, dioramas, vehicles as well as creative artwork Hangarbay94 produced using Adobe Photoshop. Julian is self taught and admits to being heavily influenced by Chewie and other contemporary photo novelists. Amongst his more notable custom projects Julian specialises in making flat, pack-and-easy-to-store dioramas, including large scale fold aways including an LED-lit "Endor Landing Platform" a huge flat-pack "Death Star Hangar" and a "Calamari Cruiser Hangar Bay". Julian also produced a movie novel called Darkchild that we absolutely love here at home.  Jules now admits to biting a little more than he could chew, and sadly the project remains unfinished at chapter 3.  Don't let it prevent you from getting invested.  It still has a big payoff in the experience of it alone.  Hangarbay94 is a real talent in the Star Wars community with his hands in so many different aspects of Star Wars artistry. Every time I see Hangarbay94's work, Dad and I just sit there and wonder how he finds time to do it all and to the levels that he accomplishes. He's just phenomenal and raises the bar for the whole customizing community. Now it hangs suspended from my ceiling at the foot of my bed where I get to fall asleep looking at it and wake up with it being the first thing I see.  It is definitely one of the favorite pieces that I have in my Star Wars custom action figure collection. "Nar Shaddaa Interceptor Patrol Vehicle" created by Hangarbay94  "It is my favourite custom." - Hangarbay94 Hangarbay94's  "Nar Shaddaa Interceptor Patrol Vehicle"         Listen to the artist himself talk about this project: You'll find Julian's X-Wing Alliance graphic novel and movie at:    www.xwa-webcomic.com Also check out his Darkchild series on his Youtube Channel at: http://www.youtube.com/user/hangarbay94?feature=mhum You should also check out Hangarbay94's:  Star Wars Apocalypse and Homeworld - Return to Higara. _____________________________________________________________ CUSTOMIZER SPOTLIGHT #29: Mikeys customs So it's time for another installment of our Customizer Spotlight.  This time around we are featuring a custom Star Wars action figure that we just had on display at Star Wars Spectacular, but wasn't yet revealed here on the blog.  Dad recently saw this Death Trooper created by Mikeys customs on ebay and we felt it would be a great addition to my zombie Stormtrooper horde.  Mikeys customs is famous for his zombie custom action figures and if you check out his albums in his Facebook profile you'll see just why. "Death Trooper" created by Mikeys customs To go to Mikeys customs ebay page click link below: http://myworld.ebay.com/mike-z_customs?ssPageName=ADME:X:CEM:US:1181 To go to Mikeys customs Facebook page click the link below: https://www.facebook.com/MikeysCustoms Straight out of Joe Schreiber's "Death Troopers" _____________________________________________________________ CUSTOMIZER SPOTLIGHT #30: Marcus Starkiller Star Wars customizer Marcus Starkiller made a super-articulated Aurra Sing that we couldn't pass up.  We even got a sweet bonus figure when it shipped. "Aurra Sing" created by Marcus Starkiller So it's time to present our latest edition of Customizer Spotlight.  For the month of May, we grabbed two of the newer additions to my collection that were made by Star Wars customizer Marcus Starkiller.  He made a super-articulated Aurra Sing that we couldn't pass up.  We even got a sweet bonus figure when it shipped.  We came across the Star Wars custom action figures of customizer John Bandow, aka Marcus Starkiller, while surfing the forums of Rebelscum and like us he's a huge Star Wars fan. We were really impressed with not only his customs, but also the work he put into their presentation. He recently started to sell some of his customs, and we picked up the above Aurra Sing custom action figure to add to my collection.  He threw in a New Republic Neimodian A-Wing Pilot for free.  Check out his figures and pick up a few yourselves. We can't say how impressed we were with his action figures, and we are sure that you will be too. "New Republic Neimodian A-Wing Pilot" created by Marcus Starkiller Dad also recently picked up Marcus Starkiller's "Ultimate" Durge custom action figure for me.  The action figure was beautifully constructed by Star Wars customizer Marcus Starkiller who incorporated the best elements from all of the Durge action figures that were released by Hasbro.  I had all three of Hasbro's releases, but after seeing Marcus Starkiller's awesome creation, my three figures are all obsolete.  His action figure sports full articulation and a removable helmet featuring the detailed headsculpt from the Comic Pack release.  Durge even fit well on the speeder bike I had in my collection.  This is definitely the best version of Durge I have ever seen committed to plastic.  "DURGE" created by Marcus Starkiller    Hasbro's three Durge releases.  "NIKTO REBEL GENERAL" created by MARCUS STARKILLER "JEDI" created by Marcus Starkiller "ROCKET BATTLE DROID" created by MARCUS STARKILLER  "CAMOUFLAGE BATTLE DROID" created by MARCUS STARKILLER To see more action figures created by Marcus Starkiller click here: http://smg.photobucket.com/albums/v319/MarcusStarkiller/Custom%20figures/ _____________________________________________________________  CUSTOMIZER SPOTLIGHT #31: HUNTER KNIGHT CUSTOMS I was recently asked what my most unique custom action figure was.  I answered, "Read my next Customizer Spotlight."  Well here is the big reveal.  It's my Pulp Fiction Jedi: Julz Saywhat.  This action figure is something Dad got a kick out of, and added to my collection.  Move over Mace Windu.  Hunter Knight Customs makes some great movies for his figures.  Be sure to check out all his links.  This is one tslented customizer that dabbles in multiple toy lines. Pulp Fiction Jedi - Julz Saywhat created by Hunter Knight Customs STAR WARS CROSSOVER FIGURE   by HUNTER KNIGHT CUSTOMS Based on the awesome cult movie "Pulp Fiction" Chris made this awesome crossover figure, featuring one of the most iconic anti-heroes of pop culture and mixed it with Star Wars. The result: the most unique action figure to ever grace your Star Wars collection! Julz Saywat is a Jedi from earth, picked up by Han Solo when he was done "walking the earth like Kane in Kung Fu" He then was secretly trained in the Jedi temple of the New Jedi Order. Now in his first mission he faces a mission similar to the one given to him 17 years ago: Deliver a briefcase safely... This figure includes a Lightsaber and a briefcase with secret contents inside! Only the winner of the auction will get to know what is inside! From Hunter Knight Customs, a leading customizing studio with hundreds of custom action figures made. Their work has been showcased in Hollywood movies such as Sex Drive (we built a car for them) and MTV. Pulp Fiction Jedi - Julz Saywhat created by Hunter Knight Customs "EMPEROR ROAN FEL" created by Hunter Knight Customs Hunter Knight Customs on YouTube ON eBay NOW:  http://tinyurl.com/cc6djv   Visit their website:  http://www.hunterknightonline.com   Visit their store:  http://www.vipcollector.com   Add them on Facebook:   http://www.facebook.com/hunter.knight...   Chek out their Interview with MTV:   http://geek-news.mtv.com/2010/11/15/i...   Follow them on twitter:  http://www.twitter.com/hunterknight1 _____________________________________________________________ CUSTOMIZER SPOTLIGHT #32: Mercury Art Studios We thought it would be a good time to display the figure in my collection that has the most sentimental value. Michael Martinez of Mercury Art Studios did a little bit of everything in all scale, and was a Star Wars fan for years. He was killed on July 2, 2011 in a head on collision with a drunk driver leaving behind a daughter and his pregnant fiancé, Hollie. The 27 year old from Georgia was one of the coolest customizers out there, and he was also a good friend. When Dad first started customizing, Mike and Dad would spend time chatting on Facebook about customizing and the joys of fatherhood. He would share stories of his little girl holding a Dremmel to action figures and making the appropriate sound effects as she imitated her dad. He would always speak about his family with great adoration. Mike was always so generous and eager to share his wealth of customizing knowledge and help Dad out with tips or parts for a new customizing project.  Mike was responsible for showing us the host for almost all of our video content found on the blog.  We never found a customizer so enthusiastic about the art form and the community that surrounded it.  To Dad, Mike was truly an inspiration. A week before Mike died, he told Dad that he had just finished making us a custom action figure, and he was going to be mailing it to us for all that our blog has done for the customizing community.  Sadly we never recived it.  A few months after Mike's passing, Dad saw a custom action figure that Mike had made up for auction on eBay.  Dad was so happy when he was named the highest bidder and we won the auction.  I love that I was able to add Mike's Kee to my collection.  I think at some point or another, all customizers have often dreamed about what it would be like to earn a living solely from the toys we produce. Mike was doing just that. Mike told Dad that he was able to support his family by making just ten custom action figures a week and selling them on eBay. We've loved his customs ever since we first saw them on Yakface.com and couldn't tell you how saddened we are by the loss of one of the greatest talents within this community. Mike you will truly be missed. "Kee" created by Mercury Art Studios Kee When Cade Skywalker visited Rik's Cantina on Coruscant in 137 ABY, she threatened him with a blaster pistol, hoping he could reveal where her former crew members, Jariah Syn and Deliah Blue had absconded with the Grinning Liar, which they had rented after leaving Cade's employ. Unfortunately, Cade was unable to help her or Chak, though he made a joking pass at her. After Cade became enthralled to the Sith, Kee along with Chak joined the crew of the Mynock in Cade's rescue as a necessary step to reaquiring the Grinning Liar which had somehow ended up in the hands of Rav. Kee, along with Chak, Deliah Blue, and Jariah Syn, were later hired by Morrigan Corde to help rescue Cade, who was her son. She assisted Syn in attaching miniature cameras to Yuuzhan Vong bugs Corde obtained from the Empire. After three weeks, when they finally managed to locate Cade and his attempt to escape the Temple of the Sith, Kee commented on how he is "chucking Darth Hottie out the airlock. Kee flew with Chak, Corde, Blue and Syn in the Mynock over the Temple. She made a sarcastic joke about one of the craziest things Syn has ever done. The mission ended in Cade's escape from the Sith. She later accompanied Chak, Cade, and Syn in an attempt to get the Grinning Liar back from Rav. After retrieving the ship, she wished Cade well and asked him to say goodbye to Blue for her. When he told her that the two weren't interacting, the Devaronian called him a nerfherder and encouraged him to talk to her. Click any of the three links below for more from Mercury Art Studios: http://www.facebook.com/#!/pages/Mercur ... 9501317704 http://www.myspace.com/mercury_art_studios http://www.youtube.com/user/mercuryartstudios _____________________________________________________________ CUSTOMIZER SPOTLIGHT #33: SITHHAPPENS This action figure is one of my favorite custom Mandalorian action figures.  I love the weathering and color scheme on this one, but I think my favorite part is the head once the helmet comes off.  Although the modifications are very simple, it shows that with just a little tweaking, a great figure can be made.   SithHappens is usually known on eBay for selling his numerous resin head casts, but if you're lucky, you can find one of his cool custom action figures too.  Keep an eye out and check his eBay page often.  You may just find an awesome score like this on your next visit. "MANDALORIAN" created by SITHHAPPENS SithHappens blog of Star Wars customs is located at:  http://sanitariumcustoms.blogspot.com. SithHappens eBay page: http://myworld.ebay.com/sithhappens SithHappens' Mandalorian was featured on the front page of Imperial Shipyards. _____________________________________________________________ CUSTOMIZER SPOTLIGHT #34:  Shaka's Customs aka munchkins2005 This is a cool looking Star Wars custom action figure that we saw on eBay and wanted to add to my collection.  This is a character from Shaka Customs original line, Star Wars The Lost Files: Bluestunie.  We use this figure as a street musician in one of our Tatooine street scenes. Bluestunie is Rappertunie's father, and one of the original members of Jabba's band. Shaka's Customs started by trimming some plastic from the shoulders, and head of a Rappertunie action figure.  Then he built the hair, re-sculpted his head, and a gave the figure a full paint job including his seat and instrument. Shaka's Customs is a seasoned veteran over at Figure Realm.   He has created toys from several toy lines, so you should definitely check out the links below to see more of his work.   "Bluestunie" created by Shaka's Customs aka munchkins2005 To go to the eBay page for munchkins2005 go to the link below: http://www.ebay.com/usr/munchkins2005 Also check out Shaka's Customs on Figure Realm: http://www.figurerealm.com/viewcustomfigures.php?op=4&id=2086 _____________________________________________________________ CUSTOMIZER SPOTLIGHT #35:  JawaKing "Sise Fromm" created by JawaKing Recently we showcased some super-articulated customs action figures from the Droids cartoon that were made by Star Wars customizer Peakob1. Around the same time we acquired those figures, we also obtained another action figure of a character from that same TV show, but made by a different Star Wars artist that goes by the name of JawaKing, and this action figure also featured super-articulation. The action figure was of Sise Fromm, an elderly male Annoo-dat who at one time, was the head of the most powerful crime syndicate in the galaxy. I needed a villain to go with the rest of the action figures I had from the Droids cartoon and this creation was the perfect fit.  The soft goods were created with a heavy suede like material that is always cool to the touch and it is dark and rich in color.  The nicest soft goods material I have ever seen on an action figure.  I loved the weight of the fabric, very heavy and thick.  What I really liked about this fabric was how readily it accepted paint on its surface on how nice it looked once it was applied. The articulation on the figure is just awesome!  Ball joints at the head, shoulder, elbows, knees and ankles with swivel joints at the waist, hips and wrists.  All hidden under that gorgeous regal muumuu. JawaKing customized for the Custom Alliance over a decade ago and just started doing customs again this year.  He's a graphic designer for a paycheck, mostly designing company logos, school mascots, shirt designs, etc.  His main drive though is the large, full-sized creature sculptures he makes for the local art galleries.  He also creates a lot of monsters and decorations at Halloween for Veterans' organizations to help with their fundraising efforts.  Custom Star Wars figures are the only small-scale sculptures he does.  He can be contacted through YakChat as JawaKing. JawaKing has crafted some beautiful figures from the Droids cartoon that I saw posted in a customizing thread over at the forums on Yakface.com.  I fell in love with them the first time I saw them.  I like seeing this new trend that's developing of customizers updating the figures of older characters given a more modern incarnation.  It's also cool how nicely they blend into my collection of other figures now too.  I was really bummed when I found out that JawaKing's Tig Fromm had already been sold to another buyer, but I was so happy that I was still able to obtain his Sise Fromm action figure. I really love this Sise Fromm action figure made by JawaKing.  ____________________________________   "Sise Fromm, was an elderly male Annoo-dat who at one time, was the head of the most powerful crime syndicate in the galaxy. During Senator Palpatine's rise to high office, it appears that Sise Fromm, the elderly then-kingpin of organized crime in the galaxy, was one of several gangsters who made possible the Sith Lord's bid for power. Others seem to have included Jabba Desilijic Tiure and PrinceXizor, fledgling heir to the Black Sun criminal empire. Fromm was fascinated by the Tarkin Doctrine and Palpatine's ambitious dream of a New Order. However, Fromm was ignorant of the Senator's true nature and severely underestimated his partner in crime. Sise hired Boba Fett to eliminate his rival, Klin Kartoosh, leaving him undisputed crimelord of the Annoo system. Sise tried to groom his son Tig to replace him, but the clumsy youth accidentally destroyed Sise's vacation palace on Bolad.[1] Sise assigned soldier Vlix Oncard with damage control duty accompanying Tig. Even after the end of the Clone Wars and establishment of the Galactic Empire, Fromm continued to attempt to compete with Palpatine. However, he was far more successful in his striving than would seem reasonably possible. He even constructed a super weapon similar to the Death Star, a full fifteen years before the Empire was able to accomplish such a feat. This would have posed a serious threat to Palpatine's newly-established government, were it not for a run of incredibly bad luck that destroyed both the space station and his palace. Mad for revenge, Sise Fromm devoted his time to hunting down and destroying the individuals responsible. However, his fellow gangsters Xizor and Jabba sensed the winds of change and spent their resources more wisely, garnering favor with those who seemed to be shifting into power. In this way, Xizor and Jabba built powerful criminal empires parallel and in symbiosis to Palpatine's New Order. Taking advantage of Fromm's temporary insanity and weakened state, Jabba the Hutt made a political power-play that would rob Fromm of his power. The quick-witted Hutt struck while the iron was hot and placed a bounty on the heads of the entire Fromm organization, aiming to crush them while they were still reeling from their losses. Through a series of bad turns with the bounty hunter Boba Fett, the elderly Annoo-dat gangster was captured along with his son and Vlix, their chief officer of security, and turned over to Jabba. Sise survived the ordeal only by agreeing to a deal heavily slanted in Jabba's favor, promising the Hutt a large percentage of the Fromm family business profits and committing their army of Annoo-dat clones to Jabba's attempt at removing the Mandalorian Death Watch diaspora that had encroached on his territory."[2] - from Wookieepedia ____________________________________   "Sise Fromm" created by JawaKing    The Sise Fromm action figure from my collection with JawaKing's Tig Fromm custom action figure.  Unfortunately, the Tig Fromm was already sold. I would have loved to own that action figure too! JawaKing on Yakface.com: http://www.yakfaceforums.com/phpBB3/viewtopic.php?f=14&t=7332 To go to the ebay page of JawaKing: http://www.ebay.com/usr/itisgreenvw ____________________________________   "VLIX ONCARD" created by markpoon This is a custom replica you can buy on eBay made by Singapore customizer markpoon of a Vlix Oncard Droids action figure. Vlix represents an obscure character from the short-lived Droids cartoon series and is the rarest of all Star Wars figures to be commercially released. In the States, it was scheduled for release in Kenner's 2nd series of Droids action figures, but, due to the cancellation of the show, it was never issued. Vlix was only released in Brazil by Glasslite in 1988 & very few are known to exist. markpoon's Vlix is pressure cast from an original Brazilian Glasslite Vlix in plastic, fully articulated & air-brushed by a professional modeler to match the exact same color as the original figure. It comes complete with a black rifle (cast from an original Hoth Stormtrooper rifle). All mold lines were skillfully removed from the master copy before the mold is made so the figure is extremely well cast. http://www.ebay.com/usr/markpoon _____________________________________________________________ CUSTOMIZER SPOTLIGHT #36:  JediStyle JediStyle not only has one of the coolest monikers in the Star Wars customizing community, but he also has creativity and skill that fits his name. This Southern California customizer was one of the first artists that really caught Dad's eye when we first started making our own figures and posting in the Yakface forums. Dad has long admired JediStyle's creative character creations, and his ability to apply paint with such beautiful contrasts and colors that REALLY pop.  JediStyle has a great eye for color and he's one of the best painters in the Star Wars custom action figure community. We just love this customizer's imagination and his creations are a testament to how far reaching it is. There is so much to appreciate in every unique piece.   JediStyle took some time off from the hobby. Fortunately, he's back now and still has the ability to unhinge jaws. Recently JediStyle, sent Dad a message, and asked Dad if he could commission him to make a custom Star Wars action figure.   Since Dad was always such a huge fan of JediStyle's work, Dad immediately asked if they could do a figure swap as payment.  For the figure swap they both agreed to create either a bounty hunter or a Jedi for each other, and then mail it when they were finished. Dad didn't feel like he had any good Jedi fodder, at least not at the level to reach his standards. Which meant that Dad would be making a bounty hunter.  At first Dad was going to try and create some crazy alien bounty hunter, but after seeing JediStyle's Mandalorian series, Dad noticed that there were no female Mandalorians on display.  That's when Dad decided that instead of doing an alien bounty hunter, he was going to create a female bounty hunter, a Steam Punk Mandalorian.   Dad shipped his creation out early this month and two weeks ago we received our figure from JediStyle.  Just instead of one figure, JediStyle sent us TWO figures!  Two figures AND a diorama!  He sent a figure for me and a figure for Dad.  I can't tell you how excited I was.  As thanks, I'm going to create a figure for him so he can have a figure from me and one from Dad. The diorama is just beautiful.  The colors in the background are so rich.  I LOVE IT!  We're sure you will too. "JEDI" created by JediStyle To see more Star Wars custom action figures created by JediStyle go to:   http://www.yakfaceforums.com/phpBB3/viewtopic.php?f=14&t=357 _____________________________________________________________ CUSTOMIZER SPOTLIGHT #37: Hyperdrive When it comes to customizing, Hyperdrive is usually known for his signature "weathered and worn" soft goods. Hyperdrive's soft goods work is just amazing!   What many people don't know, is that Hyperdrive has created some customs that have no soft goods work at all involved.   One of these figures can be found in my own collection.  Every holiday season, Customs for the Kid participates in Yakface.com's Secret Santa event in their forums.  Darth Daddy and Hyperdrive were each other's Secret Santa, and Hyperdrive made us a unique droid in the old Vintage style that Dad grew up with.  Both Dad and I were really impressed with this figure.  Dad was most impressed with the sticker that Hyperdrive created on his computer to attach to the torso of the droid.  This figure was a really cool addition to my collection and he is now posed with the complete Vintage Droid Factory playset that I found under my tree this past Christmas.  Originally, we had planned to post this action figure back in January, but Hyperdrive had sent us two packages.  One with the figure and one with the diorama.  Unfortunately, the diorama was lost in the mail for a long time until the box and diorama had been returned by the post office to Hyperdrive's home completely damaged and beyond repair.   VINTAGE DROID created by Hyperdrive To see more Star Wars custom action figures created by Hyperdrive, click the link below: http://www.yakfaceforums.com/phpBB3/viewtopic.php?t=6760    _____________________________________________________________ CUSTOMIZER SPOTLIGHT #38: MEATHEAD TOYS So I guess this isn't exactly an action figure. It's a statue. He stands about 2.5" tall and is solid hand cast resin.  It was love at first sight and we had to get him.  He'd be great in a Star Wars diorama.   MEATHEAD TOYS struck gold with this concept.  His execution is exceptional too!  We found his work surfing the net and we recommend checking MEATHEAD TOYS out.  He has a lot of fun pieces that you won't see anywhere else. He has a lot of customs for sale on his website, as well as this enlightened droid pictured below.  We really love his Droids cartoon inspired astromechs with their long skinny limbs. We'll leave his Wookiee figures as a surprise for when you give his page a look.  Love our purchase on this one.  This piece is just beautiful! "R2-DA" created by MEATHEADTOYS He's here to help open the door to enlightenment. MEATHEAD TOYS STORE: _____________________________________________________________ CUSTOMIZER SPOTLIGHT #39:  DAN of the DEAD "For the last 4 years, I have been creating custom action figures for Yakface.com's Secret Santa event.  It's my favorite way to celebrate the holidays since we joined the Star Wars customizing community.  The Yakface forums are where I started posting my artwork when I first started making action figures, and where I made my first friendships with my peers.  Dan of the Dead was also an artist who frequently posted there and I loved his work a great deal.  I was really excited when  I found out that he was the one to receive my gift this year and even more excited when I found out that we were the recipient of his gift. Elias hasn't been able to keep his hands off the gift we received from Dan of the Dead since we got it in the mail on Monday.  I kept noticing him taking breaks every five minutes, picking up the box and gazing at the swoop within as he worked hard at translating the Aurebesh note we received with our gift." -Darth Daddy AUREBESH NOTE The note we received from Dan of the Dead written in Aurebesh. TRANSLATION Greetings Sentient, And congratulations on your acquisition on your Die Industries Scatterblast Class Swoop. As you know, Die Industries patented dual intake engine gives your swoop unparalleled power, and the Scatterblast's unique over/under engine configuration is certain to turn heads! Regrettably, recent Imperial regulations prevent us from installing the full advanced weapons upgrade you requested!  We have credited your account for the cost of the package and hope you enjoy the complimentary, personal defense weapons upgrade installed in its place! Imperial regulations for the require us clarify that the requested detail paint scheme is to no longer be known as "Rebel Red"! The Imperial Security Bureau has suggested "Compliance Crimeon" as a replacement! At Die Industries, we understand you have a choice when it comes to purchasing swoops and other high-end performance speeders, and we appreciate the chance to serve your repulsorcraft needs! We'd also like to wish you a Happy Life Day (barring any local Imperial sanctions regulating the observation of said holiday in your particular sector.) Sincerely, Faded Datheon (Dan of the Dead) Chief Engineer "Die Industries Scatterblast Class Swoop" created by Faded Datheon aka Dan of the Dead Click the links below for more of Dan the Dead: http://www.yakfaceforums.com/phpBB3/viewtopic.php?t=2056 and: http://www.imperialshipyards.net/SMF/index.php?topic=2656.0 Be sure to check out his blog: _____________________________________________________________ CUSTOMIZER SPOTLIGHT #40:  ASIS FILM MODELS The next two podracers we have to share with you all were not only manufactured by ASIS FILM MODELS, but we now own the actual figures used in their advertising photos and can be found in the "Customs for the Kid" home collection. Both of these two figures were painted by ASIS FILM MODELS themselves.  ASIS FILM MODELS paint applications are impressive as their sculpting skills. These figures are just beautiful!    ASIS FILM MODELS puts out a wonderful product for those of you that want to fill out their 3 3/4" collection.  No they don't have articulation but these cast figures bring the bang in every other department.  I always loved the character design of these podracers and ASIS FILM MODELS really brings these characters to life. If you feel like you don't have the ability to paint the figures quite as well as ASIS can, have them paint one for you.  Their paint applications are stunning! We couldn't be more thrilled to own these!  "ALDAR BEEDO" created by ASIS FILM MODELS "BOLES ROOR" created by ASIS FILM MODELS  http://asisfilmmodels.com/shop/star-wars/ Below are two other ASIS FILM MODELS creations that Elias painted.  These pieces paint up beautifully! "WAN SANDAGE"  painted by Elias sculpt and cast created by ASIS FILM MODELS "EBE ENDOCOTT" painted by Elias sculpt and cast created by ASIS FILM MODELS "Customs for the Kid" podracer shelf. These two figures from The Mandalorian are another cool offering produced by Asis Film Models. They are both 3.75" scale figurines and are a great addition to any Star Wars action figure collection. Each are an ultra-detailed resin cast, painted by hand and placed on a custom cardback with a resealable blister. Both of these can be purchased online from the Asis Film Models website. Customs for the Kid has purchased numerous items from this seller in the past and they never disappoint. Buy with confidence! "The Child" is also available in the 6" scale. "THE CHILD" created by ASIS FILM MODELS "LOTHCAT" created by ASIS FILM MODELS  http://asisfilmmodels.com/shop/star-wars/ ___________________________ CUSTOMIZER SPOTLIGHT #41:  Boutros77 Early in the week, I found some really beautiful Star Wars dioramas up for auction on eBay. When Elias saw them he asked me to bid on them for him and he would reimburse me with the money he had been saving from some commissions that he did. When he won both auctions, he screamed praises to the gods above for his victory. Quite excessively and at great length to my surprise. A low bellow from deep within.  After winning the auction, I inquired and asked the seller who the artist was that made these incredible dioramas for 3 3/4" action figures. I was informed that they were created by artist Carl BouMansour who goes by the handle of Boutros77. His talent has caught the eye of Star Wars blogger/historian Tim Veekhoven who tweeted the artist's work and Boutros77 has even been interviewed by From 4-LOM to Zuckuss.com.  His Cantina and Jabba's Palace dioramas have gotten some serious attention too and I advise checking out his Flickr page. Drool worthy! "Ben's House" created by Boutros77 "Yoda's Hutt" created by Boutros77 A few weeks after we wrote our feature on the new additions to our collection, we had the opportunity to add another one of Boutros77's dioramas to our shelves. This time the display was of the inner passageways of the Tantive IV ship that carried Princess Leia and the Death Star plans.   The craftsmanship on this piece is most impressive. The opening and closing door feature is strong and sturdy, and we really love that one of the wall panels can be removed to increase the angles from which you can take photographs. These design choices really increase playability. The tabs that were engineered to hold the removable wall in place are just some of the fine details that make this a top shelf piece. "Tantive IV Passageway" created by Boutros77  Grooves and a tab are present to keep the removable wall firmly in place when completely assembled.  The tab near the top locks the wall in position. Commissions welcome: http://carlboumansour.co.uk/boutros77.htm Flickr Page: https://www.flickr.com/photos/boutros77/albums _____________________________________________________________ Customizer Spotlight # 42: "STAR WARS REBELS - SABINE's TIE FIGHTER" created by MirkoFx Studio aka Mirko Martinovic When Star Wars fans wrapped up Season 1 of "Star Wars Rebels" viewers gazed at one ultra cool variation on a Tie Fighter via to the artistic stylings of The Ghost crew member, Sabine Wren. Many fans hope that Hasbro releases a version of the vehicle from the "Fire Across the Galaxy" season finale, but as of now we're still waiting for an official announcement that it will happen.  Mirko Martinovic's painted Tie Fighter was probably the best exclusive giveaway at Star Wars Celebration Anaheim, because it is one of the only manifestations we have seen of Sabine's Tie Fighter so far. One lucky raffle winner walked away with the prize on the last day of the convention.   When the convention was over, a fan commissioned Mirko to recreate his convention exclusive.  The custom took him 3 whole weeks to complete. A true labor of love! Lucky for us, the person backed out the deal at the last minute.  Mirko was getting ready to list this masterpiece up on eBay when Dad sent him an offer.  I turned 12 yesterday, and I was in complete shock when I came home and saw this beauty hanging from my ceiling with all my other Rebel ships! "STAR WARS REBELS - SABINE TIE FIGHTER" created by MirkoFx Studio aka Mirko Martinovic ("Sabine Wren" action figure created by Darth Daddy) PRESS PHOTOS FROM STAR WARS CELEBRATION ANAHEIM _____________________________________________________________ Customizer Spotlight # 43: Parintachin73 Parintachin73, aka Blaise Bear, hails from Kingston, NY where his time is divided between working full-time, being a parent to a beautiful little girl, freelance graphic designing, and cramming in as many hours at his customs workspace as possible. He has been doing custom figures for about 7-8 years now with an emphasis on Star Wars figures. Although he has been known to delve into the world of superheroes from time to time, his primary goal these days is to expand his skill set and take on new challenges.  Parintachin73 is a veteran with powerhouse skills. We added this particular figure to our collection over a year ago, but we weren't able to post the Jedi Temple Guard on the blog until now. Hasbro has only released a version of this character with five points of articulation, so having Parintachin73's super-articulated version is a real treat.  We love the soft goods he added to the figure.  The handmade keys positioned along the waistline is probably the coolest detail on this figure. We really love his paint work. His colors are so rich and warm. Very nice on the eyes! "Jedi Temple Guard" created by Parintachin73 Link for his work on rebelscum.com: Parintachin73's customs thread For commissions please contact: [email protected] _____________________________________________________________ Customizer Spotlight # 44: "Pimp2-D2's Pimp Speeder  + Exclusive Chauffeur Action Figure" by MANLY ART MANLY ART did an exclusive release of Pimp2-D2's Pimp Speeder + Exclusive Chauffeur action figure for DKE Toys to debut at 2015's San Diego Comic-Con. The run was limited to 30 speeders total. There were no more Speeders or Chauffeurs made in this colorway and they completely SOLD OUT. Each speeder was a re-purposed vintage 1970's Kenner Land Speeder with custom cast resin windscreen and custom resin seats. The set comes with a custom Chauffeur action figure, sticker sheet and instructions. The sticker sheet includes 3 different designs for the hood in addition to cockpit controls and hood interior.   This vehicle was a fun addition to our custom collection and one of the most unique gifts under the Christmas tree this past holiday. "Pimp2-D2's Pimp Speeder  + Exclusive Chauffeur Action Figure" by MANLY ART The packaging for this was really beautiful and very well done. http://manlyart.bigcartel.com/ _____________________________________________________________ Customizer Spotlight # 45:  "Garouf Lafoe" created by CRIMSON DYNAMITE Garouf Lafoe was a male Human from Tatooine. He was an ice trader, fetching ice from the rings of Adriana and bringing it back to Tatooine. Lafoe was a patron in Chalmun's Cantina when Obi-Wan Kenobi took Luke Skywalker there. After witnessing Obi-Wan whip out a lightsaber at both Ponda Baba and Cornelius Evazan, he went outside and informed sandtrooper Davin Felth of the incident. We figured Cantina month would be a great time to share this Mos Eisley related custom in our newest Customizer Spotlight post.  Garouf Lafoe was a character we didn't have represented in our diorama, so when we saw a rendition of him available for sale on eBay we jumped at the chance to add him.  We had many figures made by the artist CRIMSON DYNAMITE so we knew the figure was worth the investment. CRIMSON DYNAMITE is a seasoned veteran in the customizing community. Before adopting his new monniker he had one of the most popular Star Wars custom action figure blogs in the community.  The blog in fact that inspired the creation of our own.  His weekly eBay auctions were eagerly awaited on Sunday evenings.  Custom action figure collectors were elated when the listings returned after a long hiatus.  We have over 30 of his customs here at home.  Be sure to check out his eBay page and save him to your favorite sellers. "Garouf Lafoe" created by CRIMSON DYNAMITE    CRIMSON DYNAMITE eBay Page _____________________________________________________________ Customizer Spotlight # 46: reanimationtoys  reanimationtoys saw Star Wars in the summer of '77.  He said his 7 year old mind was blown away. He made figures from Lok Bloks, before figures were available, and made a TIE-Fighter and X-Wing out of cardboard for his Fisher Price astronaut figures. Later he made a sandcrawler from a large chocolate easter bunny box. He used to put his record player speakers behind his cantina and played cantina band (Moog) over and over and over! Back in '80, reanimationtoys made an AT-AT out of wood, and still laughs at the loose legs as it would not stand up at all!  These vehicular creations were accompanied by various custom figures in those years of characters which were not produced. Unfortunately, only one survives, a Grand Moff Tarkin made from an Imperial officer.  Too cool in the mid-late 80's for "toys", reanimationtoys interest in all things plastic was jump started again in '95 when the "He-man" POTF Star Wars figures arrived. The bug bit again. and the bite hasn't left since. reanimationtoys started dioramas in '01, and actually started with a 2001:Space Odyssey diorama, which he still hast although incomplete. Building dioramas is a way for reanimationtoys to watch and enjoy Star Wars over and over again while "checking that particular pipe in the corner of that room" or "seeing exactly where the blast marks are on that fuselage". reanimationtoys loves building these and only wishes he had more time to devote to each. Although he readily admits that if he had more time, he'd probably still be on his first project! reanimationtoys "Death Star Detention Block AA-23 Diorama" was a great addition to the Death Star display shelves here at Customs for the Kid.  The LED's make his beautiful diorama even cooler! We included a video slideshow below the pictures of the diorama we purchased so you can enjoy two other projects that he recently completed that are both "FOR SALE" on eBay now.  The link to his eBay page is included below as well! "Death Star Detention Block AA-23 - Cell 2187 Diorama" created by reanimationtoys All photos by reanimationtoys. reanimationtoys  reanimationtoys on eBay _____________________________________________________________ CUSTOMIZER SPOTLIGHT #47:  "Custom Star Wars Action Figure Displays & Death Star Playset"  by thecardboardgalaxy Recently on eBay we came across some very cool custom Star Wars action figure displays.  We picked up all three that were available and then today noticed thecardboardgalaxy added five more unique displays to the store as well.  We already received our first three in the mail and were so impressed with the products being offered, we purchased all five of his new displays as well. We highly recommend these displays to custom action figure artists that want to display their finished action figure art in all its glory.  If you spend hours working on a figure it deserves a good photoshoot with a nice background to complement it.  Good backgrounds are something we can't stress enough to artists just starting out.  If you want the eye of peers, a nice background is key to your overall presentation, even if it is just a clean solid background color.   "Custom Star Wars Action Figure Displays"  created by thecardboardgalaxy The included tiered risers make it easy to support several figures in your display at the same time.  "Death Star Playset" created by thecardboardgalaxy "Yavin IV Base Playset" by thecardboardgalaxy  Visit thecardboardgalaxy eBay store _____________________________________________________________ CUSTOMIZER SPOTLIGHT #48:  BARBARIAN RAGE TOYS "X-ray R2-D2" Scott Cherry aka Barbarian Rage Toys has been making toys for over a year now.  We were fortunate to come across his toys on Facebook and when we heard about the limited edition launch of his "X-Ray R2-D2" action figure, we were probably the first person to make a purchase when the figure was available for purchase.  Since the figure's launch there have been several variations that were released from a bloody version to a glow-in-the-dark internal skeleton figure. All of them were eye catching.  Barbarian Rage Toys continues to release these limited edition runs of unique retro figures from franchises like Star Wars, Masters of the Universe, and other influences from the 80s - early 90s.  His figures are all hand painted and sculpted. We recommend frequently visiting his Facebook page or Instagram to see what he has in store for us all next. Also be sure to check out his comic strip! "X-Ray R2-D2" created by BARBARIAN RAGE TOYS Patreon , Instagram, Facebook, and Official Website _____________________________________________________________ CUSTOMIZER SPOTLIGHT #49: "Rogue One - The Death Star Plans"  by Phill Scott Recently, Star Wars customizer Phillip Scott created a 3.75" accessory for the Jyn Erso action figure that I wish we all got on store pegs...the Death Star Plans.  After making the piece, he molded it and produced a limited run of casts.  When he asked if any fellow artists were interested in obtaining a cast, we jumped at the chance to add the small cartridge to the hand of our Black Series figure.  As soon as we received it in the mail, we took some pictures to show it off. "Rogue One - The Death Star Plans" by Phillip Scott THE ORIGINAL POST ON REBELSCUM: "Rogue One - The Death Star Plans" by Phillip Scott _____________________________________________________________ CUSTOMIZER SPOTLIGHT #50: "Star Wars Rebels" Action Figure Bleacher by Thank The Maker Around our birthdays, we received a surprise package in the mail from our good friend Thank The Maker and we couldn't believe what we found inside the box.  Back in August, we did a feature on Thank The Maker's super cool Action Figure Bleacher Kits.  He painted up a few of the kits to to show how customizable these sets were. All of them were quite stunning, and really showcased what an impressive painter Thank The Maker is.  His Star Wars: Rebels inspired bleacher especially caught our eye.  From the Sabine inspired paint scheme and taggings, to the sleeping quarters of Zeb and Ezra built into the right side of the stand, so much thought and planning went into this amazing work of art.  It's truly incredible. It made a great birthday even better! We loved it so much we spent the rest of the day rearranging all the display shelves in my room just to accommodate it, and boy it was so worth it! The Rebels shelf in my room looks amazing.  The next day we have free, we are going to do an updated video to show everything we have on my shelves so stay tuned! "STAR WARS REBELS" ACTION FIGURE BLEACHER KIT by THANK THE MAKER The sleeping quarters aboard The Ghost was such a cool touch he added to the piece! Click image above to view a 2nd bonus video! _____________________________________________________________ CUSTOMIZER SPOTLIGHT #51: Custom Cast Cargo Accessory Bundles" created by Empire Toy Works This year I used some of my birthday money to purchase some items from Empire Toy Works to enhance my diorama displays. In the mail, I received a variety of really cool replicas of some Star Wars crates, generators and barrels that I absolutely love.  I highly recommend checking out this artists eBay page for not only the cool accessories he has available, but also to see his gorgeous wooden Star Wars dioramas that I hope to own one day! "Custom Cast Cargo Accessory Bundles"  created by Empire Toy Works EMPIRE TOY WORKS on Facebook EMPIRE TOY WORKS website EMPIRE TOY WORKS on Instagram ROT-GUT STATION (Spaceport Playset) created by EMPIRE TOY WORKS Slideshow Video by Darth Daddy _____________________________________________________________ CUSTOMIZER SPOTLIGHT #52: "GLAUCUS, LARK & JONK" created by sterlistr Glaucus was a Octeroid male who was also known by the nicknames "Big Guy" and "Big Eye". In 10 BBY, Glaucus spent time watching matches of sabacc in the Lodge on the planet Vandor and witnessed matches between the smugglers Han Solo and Lando Calrissian. He preferred spectating to playing as other players could see his card values reflected in his eye. Lark and Jonk, nicknamed the twins was a Danzikan who was also present playing inthe infamous sabacc game where Han Solo and Lando Calrissian first met. Star Wars customizer, sterlistr, offered painted resin casts for both of these characters for sale an his eBay page and we jumped at the chance to add these characters to our collection. Because Hasbro has not released any of the sabacc players from the film "Solo: A Star Wars Story", action figures of any of the characters are in high demand. We highly grab picking up some for yourselves while they are still available. "GLAUCUS" created by sterlistr "LARK & JONK" created by sterlistr eBay Page for sterlistr _____________________________________________________________ CUSTOMIZER SPOTLIGHT #53: "RENNEK & PUCIMIR THRYSS" created by Jaeger45 Well, we are halfway through the year, and we are confident in saying that Christopher Herman aka Jaeger45, has made the two coolest customs so far this year. When Dad first saw the soft goods robe and sculpted RAF flight suit on Jaeger45's "Rennek" we were pretty sure it was the best soft goods work we had ever seen in the 3.75" scale. From the resin beads that accent the sleeves to the fur trim, Rennek had all the bells and whistles. The fit of the robe on the action figure looked like it was made by a professional tailor. When Dad mentioned to Jaeger45 that he was interested in having the figure commissioned, he agreed to the request and when the figure came in the mail, we were surprised to find a head and robes to make his "Pucimir Thryss" action figure in the box too! Jaeger45 said we just needed a Coffee colored Vitruvian H.A.C.K.s Blank Figure from Boss Fight Studio to complete the figure. We already had one in our fodder so we only had to paint the sandals to add him to our Jabba display. The paint application on the figures he sent were just phenomenal, and they were two of the nicest figures we ever added to our collection. We were so thankful and we couldn't be more pleased!  We highly recommend checking out more from this artist in the link below. "Rennek & Pucimir Thryss" created by Jaeger45 Background from thecardboardgalaxy. Background from thecardboardgalaxy To see more custom action figures from Jaeger45 click the link below: http://www.imperialshipyards.net/SMF/index.php?topic=9003.0 _____________________ _____________________________________________________________ CUSTOMIZER SPOTLIGHT #54:  3.75" "ORRAY" created by Lord Sixth Customs Lord Sixth Customs has been making amazing customs for many years now. Dad once featured his customs back in 2015 in one of his features for "Darth Daddy's Customizing Corner". What we always loved about this artist was his focus on the creatures of the Star Wars universe. When he recently made one of his latest creations available to a small number of collectors, we jumped at the chance to own one of his creations.  The Orray were one of the cooler creatures to appear in "Attack of the Clones". The Geonosian battle arena was filled with several eye-catching beasts, but while Hasbro did a stellar job bringing the gladiatorial creatures to life, the larger service creatures like the Orray were not found on toy store shelves. Orrays appeared across the screen present in the background amid all the action both being ridden by their Geonosian mounts as well as being seen pulling the chariot transporting Senator Padmé Amidala and Jedi Anakin Skywalker into the arena as they openly confessed their love for each other and shared a kiss. When building a diorama and recreating the scene at home, we felt that the Orray made by Lord Sixth Customs was a necessary addition to any Prequel collection. The paint and handcrafted accessories are meticulously executed in this piece. From the detailed paintwork on the creature's eye's down to the leather work throughout. We can't express how fortunate we feel to have this piece added to our collection.  We heavily suggest using the links below to stay on top of this artists work in case another offering like this rolls along. I would hate for anyone to miss out on a future release. "ORRAY" created by Lord Sixth Customs LOOKS GREAT WITH AN "ATTACK OF THE CLONES" BATTLE ARENA TOO! You can see Lord Sixth Customs on display at Sideshow Collectors: http://www.sideshowcollectors.com/forums/star-wars-custom-figures-and-dioramas/142239-coleccionismosw-1-6-customs.html  Lord Sixth Customs Facebook page: https://www.facebook.com/lordsixthcustoms   Lord Sixth Customs on Instagram: https://www.instagram.com/lordsixthcustoms _____________________________________________________________ CUSTOMIZER SPOTLIGHT #55:  UZAY CUSTOMS For the holidays, I received some really cool custom pieces from artist Murat Bingöl of Turkey who goes by UZAY CUSTOMS. He carries so many pieces I have wanted to add to my collection for a long time now. I had received the Blurrgs and the Lanai for Christmas and Murat was nice enough to throw in a baby Grogu, baby Blurrg, a carbonized Mythrol, and some crate and barrel accessories with our first order. Dad asked me to wait before posting them all to the blog knowing we still had a second shipment incoming and it would be better to post everything all at once. This past weekend, I received my next batch of offerings from UZAY CUSTOMS which included some great pieces from The Mandalorian as well as a pod from the Revenge of the Sith that held Anakin's charred body after his duel with Obi-Wan on the planet of Mustafar. The Kowakian Kebab cooking station was the coolest offering from this weekend, because that was one of the biggest standout moments of the first episode of the show for me. The Heavy Cannon was the other big standout moment from the episode so it was really awesome that I was able to add both to our collection. UZAY CUSTOMS has some beautiful customs that would make great additions to anyone's collections. It is important to mention that he uses a filament printer to make his pieces so if print lines are something that bother you, you may want to take that into account. We feel like the post-print paint applications do a great job distracting you from those lines so take that into consideration as well. UZAY has upgraded his Blurrgs since our purchase, and his new version now has articulation like his new Mudhorn custom. In the near future, we are hoping to pick up some of his new Gamorrean fighters from Season 2 of The Mandalorian. "BLURRG" created by UZAY CUSTOMS Love the little Blurrg he gifted us. Uzay Customs surprised us by packing these items in with our order free of charge. "MYTHROL in CARBONITE" created by UZAY CUSTOMS This was also a cool bonus we didn't expect! "KOWAKIAN KEBAB" created by UZAY CUSTOMS "HEAVY MACHINE CANNON" created by UZAY CUSTOMS "ANAKIN POD" created by UZAY CUSTOMS "LANAI CARETAKER" created by UZAY CUSTOMS On Instagram On Facebook _____________________________________________________________ CUSTOMIZER SPOTLIGHT #56:  MOFF GLIDEON'S CUSTOMS Moff Glideon's Customs is relatively new to the scene, but his 3-D printed customs have caught the eyes of many collectors and his offerings have received much fanfare.  His 3-D printed Trandoshan Hunting Pods are what attracted our attention. We liked that Moff Glideon's Customs presented the option of a do-it-yourself kit for $60 or a painted version for $100. We went for a finished painted piece in our purchase. The vehicle arrived in a well packed box and the plastic it was composed of was nice and sturdy for a 3D print. The paint was well applied throughout and the lights of the vehicle are done in glow-in-the-dark paint which was a really cool detail that we enjoyed. We also really liked that the rotary gun was attached with a magnet and could move from left to right. While we purchased a less screen accurate version of the hunting pod from Lucasclones back in 2014, we really liked how well the 3-D printed version was captured in this newer edition. The new vehicle is going to look great posed with our Clone Wars Ramy and Trandoshan Hunter action figures by Peak-OB1 Custom Creations.  The MSP80 Pteropter (or Pteroptor) Hover Pod was an airspeeder model used by Trandoshan hunters on the moon of Wasskah to hunt their prey as sport during the Clone Wars. The MSP80 had a rotary repeating blaster cannon and three landing legs that folded up during take-off. The speeder was open in the back, with no safeguards. The speeders were usually parked on the landing platform of the floating fortress. When the hunting games began, three Trandoshans got on each speeder, flew into the jungle and started searching for their prey. One of these vehicles was hijacked by a group of Padawans that had survived multiple hunts; after capturing Smug, a Trandoshan guard/sniper, they mind-tricked him to call his comrade Krix and ask for transportation. Krix arrived only to find that he had stepped into a trap. The Padawans knocked him and Smug unconscious and took the vehicle. "MSP80 PTEROPTER HOVER POD" created by Joseph Glidden aka MOFF GLIDEON's CUSTOMS Posed with Hasbro's The Clone Wars Bossk action figure. MOFF GLIDEON's CUSTOMS on FACEBOOK _____________________________________________________________ CUSTOMIZER SPOTLIGHT #57: THE 3D PANDA  For this year's Pride month, my dad surprised me with a set of action figures from THE 3D PANDA.  Customs of Flix and Orka from the animated TV Series Star Wars Resistance. Hasbro's action figure collection from the show was a bit lackluster and could have benefited from being fleshed out a bit more with some additional characters from the show like Neeku, Tam, and the rest of the Ace pilots. That is why Flix and Orka are such wonderful additions to my shelves.  I always enjoyed the diversity of Star Wars, and to see Lucasfilm actively try to include LGBTQ+ characters in the Star Wars universe is something I greatly appreciate.  As a society we have made great progress when it comes to including minorities, and it warms my heart to know that my favorite Star Wars films, shows, and now my own shelves are no exception. The figures were purchased from the Etsy store of THE 3D PANDA. THE 3D PANDA is a husband/wife team of Norm Wilson and Christina Wilson from Knotts Island, North Carolina who make custom 3D printed action figures, displays, and more!  Orka & Flix were a "Print-To-Order" listing. Once your order is placed, the figures will be printed and painted. They list their current lead-time on painted, "Print-To-Order" figures at 4 weeks.  We couldn't be happier with these two custom Star Wars Resistance figures! Lots of bang for your buck in this set. Both action figures came with their own numbered trading card, and if you purchased both figures, you receive an exclusive trading card to complete the 3-carded set. Both Orka and Flix figures exhibited very well thought out designs. We loved how THE 3D PANDA handled the articulation by utilizing well-concealed magnetic joints. The paint was exceptionally applied also. Flix was a bit top heavy and would have had trouble standing on his own, but the artists wisely included two dabs of Blu-Tak to provide him with a firm stance eliminating any display concerns. The accessories included with each figures are pretty fabulous too and fit in the hands with some proper positioning. We highly recommend picking these up if you are a fan of the show or just Star Wars for that matter. "STAR WARS RESISTANCE" ORKA & FLIX created by THE 3D PANDA A third trading card is included if you order both figures at once to complete the 3-carded set. Orka comes with a wrench and Flix had a data pad, Orka has an articulating head as well as articulating shoulders and hips. Flix has articulating shoulders. _____________________________________________________________ CUSTOMIZER SPOTLIGHT #58: "REVENGE OF THE SITH" OBI-WAN KENOBI  HEAD created by Spartan 118 Customs This figure was made with a painted head that we purchased from the online store of Spartan 118 Customs. He has a lot of fantastic painted heads to choose from. When we saw his Episode III Obi-Wan Kenobi head, we knew it was time to swap the head out on our Revenge Of The Sith action figure. We had to modify the original figure by reducing the ball joint and then we also needed to increase the size of the hole in the head itself before attaching it, but we love the results. This figure looks absolutely fantastic now.  "REVENGE OF THE SITH" OBI-WAN KENOBI  HEAD created by Spartan 118 Customs _____________________________________________________________ CUSTOMIZER SPOTLIGHT #59: "Ewoks: The Battle for Endor" action figures created by Two Mirrors Treasures Nine years ago Dad made a Kaink and Chukha Trok for a fellow customizer and about seven years ago we made some additional "Ewok: The Battle for Endor" action figures for a family member. First we made a Cindel Towani and Noa Briqualon. The following year we made him a Charal.  Ever since the figures were completed we have wanted to add a set of these characters to the collection for ourselves. Recently, Dad came across some custom models on Etsy from seller Two Mirror Treasures of Prague from the Czech Republic. The painted models were very reasonably priced and Dad grabbed them to fill out our Endor Ewok Village display. After opening our shipment, we took some photos of our new figures and quickly added them to our shelves. Unfortunately, these models lack any articulation but they do fit within the 3.75" scale. Don't let the lack of articulation deter you from buying these though because the sculpts and paintwork are just wonderful. Two Mirror Treasures recently started to offer an articulated King Terak so keep an eye out for him in his store. "Ewoks: The Battle for Endor"  action figures created by Two Mirrors Treasures King Terak & Charal King Terak Turok Woodland Creature King Terak & Turok Woodland Creature Kaink, Cindel Towani, Chukha Trok, Shodu & Woklings Kaink Chukha Trok Shodu & Woklings Kaink, Chukha Trok, Shodu & Woklings Cindel Towani Two Mirrors Treasures Visit Store

Description The Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-23 (Russian: Микоян и Гуревич МиГ-23; NATO reporting name: Flogger) is a swing-wing fighter aircraft, designed by the Mikoyan-Gurevich bureau in the Soviet Union. It is considered to belong to the Soviet "Third Generation" aircraft category along with similar-aged Russian-produced fighters like the MiG-25 "Foxbat". It was the first Soviet fighter with a look-down/shoot-down radar and beyond visual range missiles, and the first MiG production fighter plane to have intakes at the sides of the fuselage. Production started in 1970 and reached large numbers with over 5,000 aircraft built. Today the MiG-23 remains in limited service with various export customers. Design and development MiG-23 on display at Le Bourget. The MiG-23's predecessor, the MiG-21 (NATO reporting name 'Fishbed'), was fast and agile, but limited in its operational capabilities by its primitive radar, short range, and limited weapons load (restricted in some aircraft to a pair of short-range air-to-air missiles). The MiG-23 was to be a heavier, more powerful machine designed to remedy these deficiencies, and rival Western aircraft like the F-4 Phantom. The new fighter was to feature a totally new S-23 sensor and weapon system suite capable of firing beyond-visual-range (BVR) missiles. A major design consideration was take-off and landing performance. Existing Soviet fast jets required very long runways, which combined with their limited range, limited their tactical usefulness. The Soviet Air Force demanded the new aircraft have a much shorter take-off run. Low-level speed and handling was also to be improved over the MiG-21. This led Mikoyan to consider two alternatives: lift jets, to provide an additional lift component, and variable-geometry wings, which had been developed by TsAGI for both "clean-sheet" aircraft designs and adaptations of existing designs. The first prototype, called "23-01" but also known as the MiG-23PD, was a tailed delta similar to the MiG-21 but with two lift jets in the fuselage. However, it became apparent very early that this configuration was unsatisfactory, as the lift jets became useless dead weight once airborne. The second prototype, known as "23-11", featured variable-geometry wings which could be set to angles of 16, 45 and 72 degrees, and it was clearly more promising. The maiden flight of 23-11 took place on 10 June 1967, and three more prototypes were prepared for further flight and system testing. All featured the Tumansky R-27-300 turbojet engine with a thrust of 7850 kp. The order to start series production of the MiG-23 was given in December 1967. The General Dynamics F-111 and F-4 Phantom were the main Western influences on the MiG-23. The Russians, however, wanted a much lighter, single-engine fighter to maximize agility. Both the F-111 and the MiG-23 were designed as fighters, but the heavy weight of the F-111 turned it into a long-range interdictor and kept it out of the fighter role. The MiG-23's designers kept the MiG-23 light enough to dogfight with enemy fighters. The U.S. Air Force operated a small number of MiG-23s, officially designated YF-113, as both test and evaluation aircraft and in an aggressor role for fighter pilot training, from 1977 through 1988 in a program codenamed "Constant Peg".[1] [edit] First-generation * Ye-231 (Flogger-A) was the prototype built for testing, and it lacked the sawtooth leading edge that later appeared on all MiG-23/-27 models. This experimental model was the common basic design that both the MiG-23/-27 and Sukhoi Su-24 were based on, but the Su-24 experienced much greater modification. * MiG-23 (Flogger-A) was the pre-production model that lacked the hardpoints on later production versions, but the sawtooth leading edge appeared on this model, and it was also armed with guns. This model marked the divergence of the MiG-23/-27 and Su-24 from their common ancestor. * MiG-23S (Flogger-A) was the initial production variant. Only around 60 were built between 1969 and 1970. These aircraft were used for both flight and operational testing. The MiG-23S had an improved R-27F2-300 turbojet engine with a maximum thrust of 9980 kp. As the Sapfir-23 radar was delayed, the aircraft were installed with the S-21 weapons control system with the RP-22SM radar—basically the same weapons system as in the MiG-21MF/bis. A twin-barreled 23 mm GSh-23L gun with 200 rounds of ammunition was fitted under the fuselage. This variant suffered from various teething problems and was never fielded as an operational fighter. * MiG-23SM (Flogger-A) was the second pre-production variant, which was also known as the MiG-23 Type 1971. It was considerably modified compared to the MiG-23S: it had the full S-23 weapons suite, featuring a Sapfir-23L radar coupled with Vympel R-23R (NATO: AA-7 'Apex') BVR missiles. It also had a further improved R-27F2M-300 (later redesignated Khatchaturov R-29-300) engine with a maximum thrust of 12,000 kp. The modified "type 2" wing had an increased wing area and a larger sawtooth leading edge. The slats were deleted and wing sweep was increased by 2.5 degrees; wing positions were changed to 18.5, 47.5 and 74.5 degrees, respectively. The tail fin was moved further aft, and an extra fuel tank was added to the rear fuselage, as in the two-seat variant (see below). Around 80 examples were manufactured. The overall reliability was increased over the previous variant, but the Sapfir radar still proved to be immature. MiG-23M Flogger-B on display at the Museum of the Great Patriotic war in Kiev. * MiG-23M ('Flogger-B) This variant first flew on June 1972. It was the first truly mass-produced version of the MiG-23, and the first VVS fighter to feature look-down/shoot-down capabilities (although this capability was initially very limited). The wing was modified again and now featured leading-edge slats. The R-29-300 (R-29A) engine was now rated for 12,500 kp. It finally had the definitive sensor suite: an improved Sapfir-23D (NATO: 'High Lark') radar, a TP-23 infra-red search and track (IRST) sensor and an ASP-23D gunsight. The 'High Lark' radar had a detection range of some 45 km against a high-flying, fighter-sized target. It was not a true Doppler radar but instead utilized the less effective "envelope detection" technique, similar to some radars on Western fighters of the 1960s. * MiG-23MF (Flogger-B) This was an export derivative of the MiG-23M originally intended to be exported to Warsaw Pact countries, but it was also sold to many other allies and clients, as most export customers were dissatisfied with the rather primitive MiG-23MS. It actually came in two versions. The first one was sold to Warsaw Pact allies, and it was essentially identical to Soviet MiG-23M, with small changes in "identify friend or foe" (IFF) transponders and communications equipment. The second variant was sold outside Eastern Europe and it had a different IFF and communications suite (usually with the datalink removed), and downgraded radar, which lacked the electronic counter-countermeasure (ECCM) features and modes of the baseline 'High Lark'. This variant was more popular abroad than the MiG-23MS and considerable numbers were exported, especially to the Middle East. The infrared system had a detection range of around 30 km against high-flying bombers, but less for fighter-sized targets. The aircraft was also equipped with a Lasur-SMA datalink. The standard armament consisted of two radar- or infrared-guided Vympel R-23 (NATO: AA-7 'Apex') BVR missiles and two Molniya R-60 (NATO: AA-8 'Aphid') short-ranged infrared missiles. From 1974 onwards, double pylons were installed for the R-60s, enabling up to four missiles to be carried. Bombs, rockets and missiles could be carried for ground attack. Later, compatibility for the radio-guided Kh-23 (NATO: AS-7 'Kerry') ground-attack missile was added. Most Soviet MiGs were also wired to carry tactical nuclear weapons. Some 1300 MiG-23Ms were produced for the Soviet Air Force (VVS) and Soviet Air Defense Forces (PVO Strany) between 1972 and 1978. It was the most important Soviet fighter type from the mid-to-late 1970s. * MiG-23U ('Flogger-C) The MiG-23U was a twin-seat training variant. It was based on the MiG-23S, but featured a lengthened cockpit with a second crew station behind the first. One forward fuel tank was removed to accommodate an extra seat—this was compensated for by adding a new fuel tank in the rear fuselage. The MiG-23U had the S-21 weapon system, although the radar was later mostly removed. During its production run, both its wings and engine were improved to the MiG-23M standard. Production began at Irkutsk in 1971 and eventually converted to the MiG-23UB. * MiG-23UB ('Flogger-C) Very similar to MiG-23U except that the R-29-300 turbojet engine replaced the older R-27 installed in the MiG-23U. Production continued until 1985 (for the export variant). A total of 769 examples were built, including conversions from the MiG-23U. * MiG-23MP ('Flogger-E) Similar to the MiG-23MS (described below), but produced in much fewer numbers and was never exported. Virtually identical to MiG-23MS except the addition of a dielectric head above the pylon, which was often associated with the ground-attack versions—for which it might have been a developmental prototype. * MiG-23MS ('Flogger-E) This was an export variant, as the '70s MiG-23M was considered too advanced to be exported to Third World countries. It was otherwise similar to MiG-23M, but it had the S-21 standard weapon system, with a RP-22SM (NATO: 'Jay Bird') radar in a smaller radome, and the IRST was removed. Obviously, this variant had no BVR capability, and the only air-to-air missiles it was capable of using were the R-3S (NATO: AA-2a 'Atoll') and R-60 (NATO: AA-8 'Aphid') IR-guided missiles and the R-3R (NATO: AA-2d 'Atoll') semi-active radar homing (SARH) missile. The avionics suite was very basic. This variant was produced between 1973 and 1978 and exported principally to North Africa and the Middle East. [edit] Second-generation * MiG-23P ('Flogger-G) This was a specialized air-defense interceptor variant developed for the PVO Strany. It had the same airframe and powerplant as the MiG-23ML, but there is a cut-back fin root fillet instead of the original extended one on other models. Its avionics suite was improved to meet PVO requirements and mission profiles. Its radar was the improved Sapfir-23P, which could be used in conjunction with the gunsight for better look-down/shoot-down capabilities to counter increasing low-level threats like cruise missiles. The IRST, however, was absent. The autopilot included a new digital computer, and it was linked with the Lasur-M datalink. This enabled ground-controlled interception (GCI) ground stations to steer the aircraft towards the target; in such an intercept, all the pilot had to do was control the engine and use the weapons. The MiG-23P was the most numerous PVO interceptor in the 1980s. Around 500 aircraft were manufactured between 1978 and 1981. The MiG-23P was never exported and served only within the PVO in Soviet service. * MiG-23bis ('Flogger-G) Similar to the MiG-23P except the IRST was restored and the cumbersome radar scope was eliminated because all of the information it provided could be displayed on the new head-up display (HUD). * MiG-23ML. The early Flogger variants were intended to be used in high-speed missile attacks, but it was soon noticed that fighters often had to engage in more stressful close-in combat. Early production aircraft had actually suffered cracks in the fuselage during their service career. Maneuverability of the aircraft was also criticized. A considerable redesign of the airframe was performed, resulting in the MiG-23ML (L – lightweight), which made it in some ways a new aircraft. Empty weight was reduced by 1250 kg, which was achieved partly by removing a rear fuselage fuel tank. Aerodynamics were refined for less drag. The dorsal fin extension was removed. The undercarriage was redesigned, resulting in a lowered nose attitude on the ground. The airframe was now rated for a g-limit of 8.5, compared to 8 g for the early generation MiG-23M/MF 'Flogger-B'. A new engine model, the R-35F-300, now provided a maximum dry thrust of 8550 kp, and 13,000 kp with afterburner. This led to a considerable improvement in maneuverability and thrust-to-weight ratio. The avionics set was considerably improved as well. The S-23ML standard included Sapfir-23ML radar and TP-23ML IRST. The new radar was more reliable and a had maximum detection range of about 65 km against a fighter-sized target (25 km in look-down mode). The navigation suite received a new, much improved autopilot. New radio and datalink systems were also installed. The prototype of this variant first flew in 1976 and production began 1978. Soviet MiG-23MLA Flogger-G * MiG-23MLA ('Flogger-G) The later production variant of the 'ML' was redesignated the 'MLA'. Externally, the 'MLA' was identical to 'ML'. Internally, the 'MLA' had an improved radar with better ECM resistance, which made co-operative group search operations possible as the radars would now not jam each other. It also had a new ASP-17ML HUD/gunsight, and the capability to fire improved Vympel R-24R/T missiles. Between 1978 and 1982, around 1100 'ML/MLA's were built for both the Soviet Air Force and export customers. As with the MiG-23MF, there were two different MiG-23ML sub-variants for export: the first version was sold to Warsaw Pact countries and was very similar to Soviet aircraft. The second variant had downgraded radar and it was sold to Third World allies. Soviet MiG-23MLD Flogger-K * MiG-23MLD ('Flogger-K) The MiG-23MLD was the ultimate fighter variant of the MiG-23. The main focus of the upgrade was to improve maneuverability, especially during high angles of attack (AoA).The pitot boom was equipped with vortex generators, and the wing's notched leading edge roots were 'saw-toothed' to act as vortex generators as well. The flight-control system was modified to improve handling and safety in high-AoA maneuvers. Significant improvements were made in avionics and survivability: the Sapfir-23MLA-II featured improved modes for look-down/shoot-down and close-in fighting. A new SPO-15L radar warning receiver was installed, along with chaff/flare dispensers. The new and very effective Vympel R-73 (NATO: AA-11 'Archer') short-range air-to-air missile was added to inventory. No new-build 'MLD' aircraft were delivered to the VVS, as the more advanced MiG-29 was about to enter production. Instead, all Soviet 'MLD's were former 'ML/MLA' aircraft modified to 'MLD' standard. Some 560 aircraft were upgraded between 1982 and 1985. As with earlier MiG-23 versions, two distinct export variants were offered. Unlike Soviet examples, these were new-build aircraft, though they lacked the aerodynamic refinements of Soviet 'MLD's; 16 examples were delivered to Bulgaria, and 50 to Syria. These were the last single-seat MiG-23 fighters made, and the last example rolled off the production line in December 1984. [edit] Ground-attack variants * MiG-23BM ('Flogger-D) This was a MiG-23BK upgrade, with the PrNK-23M replacing the original PrNK-23, and a digital computer replacing the original analog computer. Introduced into service as MiG-27. * MiG-23BM experimental aircraft ('Flogger-D) The MiG-23 ground-attack versions had too much "fighter heritage" for an attack aircraft, and a new design with more radical changes was developed. This was eventually redesignated as the MiG-27 (NATO: 'Flogger-D'). The MiG-23BM experimental aircraft served as a predecessor to the MiG-27 and it differs from the standard MiG-23BM and other MiG-23 models in that its dielectric heads were directly on the wing roots, instead of on the pylons. * MiG-23B ('Flogger-F) The requirement for a new fighter-bomber had become obvious in the late 1960s, and the MiG-23 appeared to be suitable type for such conversion. The first prototype of the project, "32-34", flew for the first time on 20 August 1970. The MiG-23B had a redesigned forward fuselage, but was otherwise similar to the MiG-23S. The pilot seat was raised to improve visibility, and the windscreen was armored. The nose was flat-bottomed and tapered down. There was no radar; instead it had a Sokol-23 ground attack sight system, which included an analog computer, a laser rangefinder and the PBK-3 bomb sight. The navigation suite and autopilot were also improved to provide more accurate bombing. It retained the GSh-23L gun, and its maximum warload was increased to 3000 kg by strengthening the pylons. Survivability was improved by an electronic warfare (EW) suite and inert gas system in the fuel tanks to prevent fire. The first prototype had a MiG-23S type wing, but subsequent examples had the larger "type 2" wing. Most importantly, instead of an R-29 variant, aircraft was powered by the AL-21F-3 turbojet with a maximum thrust of 11,500 kp. The production of this variant was limited, however, as the supply of AL-21 engines was needed for the Sukhoi Su-17 and Su-24 production lines. In addition, this engine was not cleared for export. Only three MiG-23B prototypes and 24 production aircraft were produced in 1971–72. * MiG-23BK ('Flogger-H) These were exported to Warsaw Pact countries—but not to Third World customers—and thus had the PrNK-23 navigation and attack system. Additional radar warning receivers were also mounted on the intakes. * MiG-23BN ('Flogger-H) The MiG-23BN was the definitive fighter-bomber variant. It was otherwise the same as MiG-23B, but had the same R-29-300 engine as contemporary fighter 'Floggers'. They were also fitted with "type 3" wings. There were other minor changes in electronics and equipment, and some changes were made during its long production run. This variant proved to be fairly popular and effective and it was extensively exported. As usual, a downgraded version was sold to Third World customers. Serial production began in 1973 and lasted until 1985, with 624 examples built. Most of them were exported, as the Soviets always viewed it as an interim type and only a small number served in Frontal Aviation regiments. The most distinctive identifying feature between the MiG-23B and MiG-23BN was that the former was rather a developmental aircraft and had the dielectric head just above the pylon, but this was removed from the MiG-23BN.The last of the MiG-23 BNs were flown by 221 Squadron (Valiants) of Indian Air Force and were decommissioned on 6 March 2009. Wing Commander Tapas Ranjan Sahu, was the last pilot to land the Mig-23 BN on that day. * MiG-27 A simplified ground-attack version with simple pitot air intakes, no radar and a simplified engine with two position afterburner nozzle. [edit] Proposed variants and upgrades * MiG-23R was a proposed reconnaissance variant; the project was never finished. * MiG-23MLGD, MLG and MLS were further fighter upgrades with new radar and EW equipment, partly the same as in MiG-29; these variants were also fitted with helmet-mounted sights and were basically MiG-23MLD subvariants. They were abandoned in favor of the then ongoing MiG-29 program. * MiG-23K was a carrier-borne fighter variant based on the MiG-23ML. * MiG-23A was a multirole variant based on the 'K'. However, cancellation and subsesquent redesign of the Soviet aircraft carrier project also caused cancellation of the MiG-23A and MiG-23K variants and subvariants. It was planned to develop the MiG-23A into three different subvariants: o MiG-23AI The MiG-23AI was to be a dedicated fighter. o MiG-23AB The MiG-23AB was to be an attack-dedicated variant. o MiG-23AR MiG-23AR a dedicated reconnaissance variant. * MiG-23MLK Planned to be powered by either two new R-33 engines or one R-100. * MiG-23MD Was basically a MiG-23M fitted with a Saphir-23MLA-2. * MiG-23ML-1 Wwas a variant with several possible powerplant and engine choices; its single-engine options were either one R-100 or one R-69F engine, while its twin-engine arrangement was two R-33 engines. It was planned to be armed with a new air-to-air missile, the R-146[citation needed]. * MiG-23-98 In the late 1990s, Mikoyan, following their successful MiG-21 upgrade projects, offered an upgrade which featured new radar, new self-defense suite, new avionics, improved cockpit ergonomy, helmet-mounted sight, and the capability to fire Vympel R-27 (NATO: AA-10 'Alamo') and Vympel R-77 (NATO: AA-12 'Adder') missiles. The projected cost was around US$1 million per aircraft. Smaller upgrades were also offered, which consisted of only improving the existing Sapfir-23 with newer missiles and upgrades of other avionics. Airframe life extension was offered as well. * MiG-23-98-2 An export upgrade including the Saphir radar fitted to their MiG-23MLs; this radar upgrade allows the Angolan MiG-23s to fire new types of air-to-air and air-to-ground weapons. This radar upgrade seems to be the same offered as part of the radar upgrade. * MiG-23LL (flying laboratory) MiG-23s and MiG-25s were used as the first jet fighter platforms to test a new in-cockpit warning system with a pre-recorded female voice to inform pilots about various flight parameters. A female voice was chosen specifically to provide a clear and intuitive distinction between communications from the ground and the messages from internal systems, since ground communications virtually always came in male voice in Soviet service. The idea proved successful for many reasons besides the original one, and was later heavily borrowed by Western aircraft manufacturers, eventually becoming standard in all jet fighters around the world. [edit] Price The MiG-23 had the advantage of being quite cheap in the early 1980s. For example, the MiG-23MS was priced between US$3.6 million and US$6.6 million depending on the customer;[citation needed] on the other hand in 1980, the F-16 Fighting Falcon was priced at US$14 million, and the Flogger's closest Western competitor was the Israeli $4.5 million Kfir C2.[citation needed] [edit] Armament MiG-23M Flogger-B armed with AA-7 and AA-8 missiles The MiG-23's armament evolved as the type's avionics were upgraded and new variants were deployed. The earliest versions, which were equipped with the MiG-21's fire control system, were limited to firing variants of R-3 (AA-2 'Atoll'). The R-60 (AA-8 'Aphid') replaced the R-3 during the '70s, and from the MiG-23M onwards the R-23/R-24 (AA-7 'Apex') was carried. Third-generation Floggers were capable of firing R-73 (AA-11 'Archer') when it became available, but this missile was not exported until the MiG-29 was released for export. The helmet-mounted sight associated with the AA-11 'Archer' (R-73) was fitted on the MiG-23MLD/MLDG experimental subvariants that never entered production as had been originally planned. The reason was that these MiG-23MLD subvariants had less priority than the then ongoing MiG-29 program, and the Mikoyan bureau therefore decided to concentrate all their efforts on the MiG-29 program and halted further work on the MiG-23s. Nevertheless, a helmet-mounted sight is now offered as part of the MiG-23-98 upgrade. There were reports about the MiG-23MLD being capable of firing the AA-10 'Alamo' (R-27) beyond its firing experimental tests; however, it seems only Angola's MiG-23-98 are capable of doing so. A MiG-23 was used to test and fire the AA-10, AA-11 and AA-12 air-to-air missiles during their early flight and firing trials. Ground-attack armament included 57 mm rocket pods, general purpose bombs up to 500 kg in size, gun pods, and Kh-23 (AS-7 'Kerry') radio-guided missiles. Up to four external fuel tanks could be carried. [edit] Operational history Captured MiG-23 on display in Israel Western and Russian aviation historians usually differ in respect to the MiG-23's combat record, in part due to the bias in favor of their respective national aircraft industries. They also usually accept claims going along with their respective political views since usually many conflicting and contradictory reports are written and accepted by their respective historians. Little pictorial evidence has been published confirming MiG-23 air to air losses and victories, with the exception of the Libyan MiG-23s shot down by U.S. Navy F-14s and two pictures of Syrian MiG-23s shot down in 1982 by Israeli forces .[2] Russians and Syrian claim numerous successes for MiG-23s, which Israel doesn't admit: * On 19 April 1974 a MiG-23MS flown by Maj. El al-Masry is said to have shot down 2 IAF F-4Es during a mission over the Golan Heights against an Israeli offensive to destroy Syrian SAMs. He was subsequently shot down by an AAM fired by the Israelis and also by a friendly SA-6 battery. The Israelis claim that only one Phantom was lost on that day.[3] * 26 April 1981, two MiG-23MS, are said to have shot down two A-4 Skyhawks.[4] The first MiG-23s to see combat were export variants with many limitations. For example, the MiG-23MS lacked a radar warning receiver. In addition, compared to the MiG-21, the aircraft was mechanically complex and expensive. Early export variants also lacked many "war reserve modes" in their radars, making them vulnerable against electronic countermeasures (ECM), at which the Israelis were especially proficient. Israel claims that during the period of 1982–1985 no Israeli aircraft was lost to enemy aircraft and that Israel only lost five aircraft shot down by Syrian SAMs.[5] Israeli reports (which have been endorsed by the majority of Western historians) claim that during the period of intense fighting from 6–11 June 1982, 85 Syrian aircraft were shot down in air combat. At least 30 of these aircraft were reported by Israeli sources to be MiG-23s, but mainly the specialized ground attack version, the MiG-23BN.[citation needed] The Israelis also claim that their F-15s downed two MiG-23MLs in 1985.[citation needed] According to Soviet/Russian historians, the MiG-23MS did achieve kills in this war also. One of these victories was achieved on 11 June 1982, when a pair of MiG-23MS pilots, named Heyrat and Zabi, brought down an Israeli F-4 with two AA-2s. Both MiG-23MS pilots were then shot down.[6] Line of Cuban MiG-23s. Soviet/Russian sources also state the Syrians lost only six MiG-23MFs and four export MiG-23MSs in the Bekaa Valley, while the other fourteen MiG-23s shot down by the Israelis were MiG-23BN ground-attack variants. At the same time, Syrian MiG-23s managed to shoot down at least five F-16s, two F-4Es, and a BQM-34 unmanned reconnaissance plane. These are some of the Syrian MiG-23 kills as described in a Soviet/Russian source:[6] * On 7 June 1982, three MiG-23MFs (pilots Hallyak, Said, and Merza) attacked a group of F-16s. Captain Merza detected the F-16s at a distance of 25 km and brought down two F-16s with R-23 (AA-7 "Apex") missiles (one from 9 km and another within the distance of 7 or 8 km) before he himself was shot down. * On 8 June 1982, two MiG-23MFs again met with F-16s. Major Hau's MiG-23 detected an F-16 at a distance of 21 km and shot it down with an R-23 from a distance of 7 km. Again, the Syrian pilot was himself shot down by an AIM-9 Sidewinder fired from another F-16. * On 9 June 1982, two MiG-23MFs, piloted by Deeb and Said, attacked a group of F-16s. Deeb brought down an F-16 from a distance of 6 km with an R-23, but was then shot down, most likely by a Sidewinder.[citation needed] Soviet/Russian sources further state that three Israeli F-15s and one F-4 were shot down in October 1983 by the newly delivered MiG-23MLs, with no Syrian losses since.[6] The MiG-23 took part in the Iran–Iraq War and was used in both air-to-air and air-to-ground roles. The reports about performance in air combat are mixed - some authors claim that Iraqi MiG-23s had some victories and several losses against Iranian F-14s and F-4s. For example it is said that Colonel Mohammed-Hashem All-e-Agha was shot down by an Iraqi MiG-23 while flying his F-14 on 11 August 1984. Furthermore, Capt. Bahram Ghaneii was shot down by a MiG-23ML on 17 January 1987.[7][8] According to Iranian sources, four MiG-23s were shot down by F-14s on 29 October 1980.[9] Cuban MiG-23MLs and South African Mirage F1s had several encounters during Angolan War, one of which resulted in a Mirage being lost after it was damaged by a Cuban MiG-23ML. Surprising a pair of Mirages, two MiG-23s fired missiles: one MiG engaged a Mirage flown by Capt Arthur Piercey with a pair of R-23Rs, while the other fired a single R-60 at Captain Carlo Gagiano's Mirage. The missiles homed on the Mirages, but only one R-23R fuzed close enough to cause damage. Unfortunately this was enough to damage the hydraulics systems of Capt Piercey's Mirage, and the damage probably contributed to the Mirage veering off the runway on landing. The nose gear collapsed on coming off the runway, which in turn slammed the nose down so hard that Piercey's ejection seat fired. The nose gear failure eventually left Capt Piercey paralyzed and the aircraft a write-off. Soviet MiG-23s and Pakistani F-16s clashed a few times during the Soviet-Afghan War. One F-16 was lost in 1987. Pakistan insists it was a friendly fire incident, however at first the F-16 was reported as shot down in air to air combat with MiGs by the Washington Post and the New York Times.[10][11] and only later the Pakistani side recanted the event. According to the Russian version of the event, the F-16 was shot down when Pakistani F-16s encountered Soviet MiG-23MLDs. Soviet TASS originally reported the event as the F-16 being shot down by Afghan air defenses. Soviet MiG-23MLD pilots, while on a bombing raid, reported being attacked by F-16s and then seeing one F-16 explode. It could have been downed by gunfire from a MiG whose pilot did not report the kill in fear of punishment, since this would had complicated the political situation for the former USSR.[12] According to Pakistani sources, the F-16 piloted by Flt.Lt. Shahid Sikander was shot down in a friendly fire incident, after he flew directly in front of his flight leader and was hit by an AIM-9 Sidewinder fired at the Mig-23's. This version has been cited with more credibility by western sources claiming the MiG-23MLD were on a ground attack mission and therefore not equipped with air to air missiles.[13] A year later, Soviet MiG-23MLDs using R-24s (NATO: AA-7 "Apex") downed two Iranian AH-1J Cobras that had intruded into Afghani airspace. In a similar incident a decade earlier, on 21 June 1978, a PVO MiG-23M flown by Pilot Captain V. Shkinder shot down two Iranian Boeing CH-47 Chinook helicopters that had trespassed into Soviet airspace, one helicopter being dispatched by two R-60 missiles and the other by cannon fire. At least one Libyan MiG-23MS was shot down by an Egyptian fighter during and immediately after the Libyan–Egyptian War in 1977. In one skirmish, two LARAF MiG-23MS engaged two EAF MiG-21MF which had been upgraded to carry western weaponry. The Libyan pilots made the mistake of trying to out-maneuver more nimble Egyptian fighters, and one MiG-23MS was shot down by Maj. Sal Mohammad with an AIM-9 Sidewinder missile, while the other used its superior speed advantage to escape. [14]Two Libyan MiG-23MS fighters were shot down by U.S. Navy F-14s in the Gulf of Sidra incident in 1989. During the Persian Gulf War, the USAF reported downing eight Iraqi MiG-23s with F-15s. Some Russian sources claim that a U.S. F-16 and a Italian Tornado were shot down by Iraqi MiG-23 in this war; however the Italian Air Force maintained that the only Tornado lost during the war (pilots: Bellini and Cocciolone) was shot down by a surface-to-air missile. Other Russian claims include the story about an Iraqi pilot named Hassan, flying a MIG-23 having supposedly damaged an F-111 with and R-24T missile at 4:30 somewhere south of Balad airbase, and at 5:10 another F-111 (tail number 70-2384) being damaged by another R-24T missile fired by a MiG-23. [15]. While an unidentified F-111F was indeed damaged near Balad airbase, and F-111F with tail number 70-2384 also did not return intact, neither damage had anything to do with missile hits: an F-111F was hit by Iraqi anti-aircraft cannon fire south of the airbase in question, while the F-111F with tail number 70-2384 suffered a mid-air collision with a KC-135 tanker.[16] An Iraqi MiG-23 was shot down by a USAF F-16 using an AMRAAM missile in January 1993, during skirmishes in the No-Fly-Zones. In Eritrea in 1999 3 Ethiopian MiG-23BNs were shot down by Eritrean MiG-29s in a small border war in 1999[citation needed]. The type also saw extensive use as a bomber. [edit] Soviet and Warsaw Pact service Because of its distinctive appearance with large air intakes on both sides of the fuselage the aircraft was nicknamed "Cheburashka" by some Soviet pilots after a popular Russian cartoon character representing a fictional animal with big ears. The nickname did not stick and was later firmly assigned to Antonov An-72/74, although to this day it is sometimes applied to different aircraft with similar exterior features, including the USAF A-10 Thunderbolt II. The aircraft was not used in large numbers by the non-Soviet air forces of the Warsaw Pact as originally envisioned. When the MiG-23s were initially deployed, they were considered the elites of the Eastern Bloc air forces. However, very quickly the disadvantages became evident and the MiG-23 did not replace the MiG-21 as initially intended. The aircraft had some deficiencies that limited its operational serviceability and its hourly operating cost was thus higher than the MiG-21’s. The Eastern Bloc air forces used their MiG-23s to replace MiG-17s and MiG-19s still in service. Ukrainian decommissioned MiG-23. By 1990, over 1,500 MiG-23s of different models were in service with VVS and PVO. With the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the Russian Air Force began to cut back its fighter force, and it was decided the MiG-23s and MiG-27s were among the types which were to be retired to operational storage. The last model to serve was the MiG-23P, which was retired in 1998. When East and West Germany unified, no MiG-23s were transferred to the Luftwaffe, but twelve former East German MiG-23s were supplied to the U.S. When Czechoslovakia split into the Czech Republic and Slovakia, the Czechs received all the MiG-23s, which were retired in 1998. Hungary retired their MiG-23s in 1996, Poland in 1999, Romania in 2000, and Bulgaria in 2004. The MiG-23 was the Soviet Air Force's "Top Gun"-equivalent aggressor aircraft from the late 1970s to the late 1980s. It proved a difficult opponent for early MiG-29 variants flown by inexperienced pilots. Exercises showed when well-flown, a MiG-23MLD could achieve favorable kill ratios against the MiG-29 in mock combat by using hit-and-run tactics and not engaging the MiG-29s in dogfights. Usually the aggressor MiG-23MLDs had a shark mouth painted on the nose just aft of the radome, and many were piloted by Soviet-Afghan War veterans. In the late 1980s, these aggressor MiG-23s were replaced by MiG-29s, also featuring shark mouths. [edit] Performance tests Many potential enemies of the USSR and its client states had a chance to evaluate the MiG-23’s performance. In the 1970s, after a political realignment by the Egyptian government, Egypt gave their MiG-23MS to the United States and the People's Republic of China in exchange for military hardware. In the US, these MiG-23MS and other variants acquired later from Germany were used as part of the evaluation program of Soviet military hardware. Dutch pilot Leon Van Maurer, who had more than 1200 hours flying F-16s, flew against MiG-23ML Flogger-Gs from air bases in Germany and the U.S. as part of NATO's aerial mock combat training with Soviet equipment. He concluded the MiG-23ML was superior in the vertical to early F-16 variants, just slightly inferior to the F-16A in the horizontal, and has superior beyond visual range (BVR) capability. The Israelis tested a MiG-23MLD that defected from Syria and found it had better acceleration than the F-16 and F/A-18. Another MiG-23 evaluation finding in the US and Israel reports was that the MiG-23 has a Heads-Up Display (HUD) that doubles as a radarscope, allowing the pilot to keep his eyes focused at infinity and work with his radar. It also allowed the Soviets to dispense with the radarscope on the MiG-23. This feature was carried over into the MiG-29, though in that aircraft a cathode ray tube (CRT) was carried on the upper right corner to double as a radarscope. Western opinions about this "head-up radarscope" are mixed. The Israelis were impressed, but an American F-16 pilot criticizes it as "sticking a transparent map in front of the HUD" and not providing a three-dimensional presentation that will accurately cue a pilot's eyes to look for a fighter as it appears in a particular direction. Besides the Syrian defection, a Cuban pilot[17] flew a MiG-23BN to the US in 1991 and a Libyan MiG-23 pilot also defected to Greece in 1981. In both cases, the aircraft were later returned to their countries. The early MiG-23M series was also used to test the American F-5s captured by the North Vietnamese and sent to the former USSR for evaluation, however the Russians acknowledged the F-5 was a very agile aircraft and at some speeds and altitudes better than the MiG-23M, this was one of the main reasons the MiG-23MLD and MiG-29 developments were started. These tests of the F-5 allowed the Russians to make modifications to several of their 4th generation aircraft, however despite the MiG-23 was not designed to combat F-5s, it showed the weaknesses of the early MiG-23 variants .[18] [edit] Operators [edit] Current operators MiG-23 operators (current in bright red; former in dark red) Algeria Algerian Air Force. 29 MiG-23BN/MS/UB in service Angola People's Air and Air Defence Force of Angola. 32 MiG-23M/UB in service Belarus Belarus Air Force. 34 MiG-23M in service Côte d'Ivoire Cote d'Ivoire Air Force. Received two MiG-23MLD from Bulgaria in the late 1990s. [5] Cuba Cuban Air Force. 69 MiG-23MF/ML/UB in service (most grounded) Ethiopia Ethiopian Air Force. 32 MiG-23BN/UB in service for ground attack role. The interceptor variant, MIG-23ML, was withdrawn from service. Kazakhstan Military of Kazakhstan. 100 MiG-23M/UB in service Libya Libyan Air Force. 130 MiG-23MS/ML/BN/UB in service (most in storage) Namibia Namibian Air Force 2 MiG-23 aircraft in service. North Korea North Korean Air Force. 66 MiG-23ML/UB in service Sri Lanka Sri Lanka Air Force. One MiG-23UB trainer used only for training purposes for their MiG-27 fleet Syria Syrian Air Force. 146 MiG-23MS/MF/ML/MLD/BN/UB in service Turkmenistan Military of Turkmenistan. 230 MiG-23M/UB in service Uzbekistan Military of Uzbekistan 31 in service. Yemen Yemen Air Force. 44 MiG-23BN/UB in service Vietnam Vietnam People's Air Force. 36 Mig-23ML/UB in service[19] Zambia Military of Zambia. 6 Mig-23MS aircraft in service Zimbabwe Air Force of Zimbabwe. 3 MiG-23M/UB were seen in a fly past in 2003[20] Note: The status of Belarus' MiG-23s is uncertain. While some sources say they are operational (or at least in a low operational capability), others claim they have been retired. [edit] Former operators Afghanistan Afghan Air Force. MiG-23BN/UB may have served with the Afghan Air Force from 1984. It is unclear whether these were merely Soviet aircraft wearing Afghan colors. Bulgaria Bulgarian Air Force. A total of 90 MiG-23s served the Bulgarian Air Force from 1976 to their withdrawal from service in 2002. The exact count is: 33 MiG-23BN, 12 MiG-23MF, 1 MiG-23ML, 8 MiG-23MLA, 21 MiG-23MLD and 15 MiG-23UB. Czech Republic Czechoslovakian Air Force. MiGs were retired in 1994 (BN,MF version) and 1998 (ML, UB variant). Czechoslovakia Czech Air Force. MiG-23s were transferred to the Czech Republic. East Germany East German Air Force. Transferred to (West) German Luftwaffe. The German Luftwaffe gave two MiG-23s to USAF and one to a museum in Florida, the others were given away to others states or scrapped. Iran 9 flown over from Iraq in 1991 in storage. Egypt Egyptian Air Force. Six MiG-23BN/MS/U were sent to China in exchange for military hardware; China used them to reverse engineer the MiG-23 as the Q-6 but since the chinese could not reverse engineer the R-29 and build a reliable turbofan the only MiG-23 elements that were used ended in the J-8II. At least 8 were transferred to USA for evaluation. Georgia Georgian Air Force Hungary Hungarian Air Force. 16 MiG-23 served and were withdrawn in 1997; the exact count is: 12 MiG-23MF and 4 MiG-23 UB (one of them was purchased in 1990 from the Soviet Air Force). India Indian Air force. MiG-23BN ground attack aircraft phased out on 6 March 2009 & MiG-23MF air defence interceptor phased out on 2007. A total of 95 MiG-23BN had been obtained.[21] [22] Iraq Iraqi Air Force. Some Iraqi MiG-23s were sent to Yugoslavia for upgrades when Gulf war started. 1 known example remains in Serbia at the Museum of Aviation in Belgrade. Polish Air Force MiG-23 Ukrainian MiG-23 on display at the Museum of the Great Patriotic War, Kiev Poland Polish Air Force. 36 MiG-23MF single-seaters and six MiG-23UB trainers were delivered to the Polish Air Force between 1979 and 1982. Last of them were withdrawn in September 1999. Romania Romanian Air Force. 46 MiG-23 served from 1979 until 2001 and were withdrawn in 2003; the exact count is: 36 MiG-23MF and 10 MiG-23 UB. Russia Russian Air Force. Approx 500, all in reserve. Soviet Union Passed on to successor states. * Soviet Air Force * Soviet Anti-Air Defence Sudan Sudanese Air Force Ukraine Ukrainian Air Force [edit] Evaluation only users China * The MiG-23s obtained from Egypt, were tried to be reverse engineered as the Q-6, but the program did not go ahead and the Q-6 was not even built, however some MiG-23 features were adopted in the J-8II, currently China displays the MiG-23s in several air museums and in a non operational ex-Soviet aircraft carrier in Hong Kong. Israel * One ex-Syrian plane flown by a defecting pilot to Israel.[23] Democratic Republic of the Congo Air Force of the Democratic Republic of the Congo * Air Force of the Democratic Republic of the Congo have/had? 2 MiG-23s, MiG-23MS and MiG-23UB, listed in the IISS Military Balance 2007 United States * Samples obtained from Egypt remained flight worthy until the late 1980s and were mostly stationed in Nellis Air Force Base * The Cold War Air Museum (CWAM) is returning a MiG-23UB to flying condition from its Museum at Lancaster Airport (Texas) just south of Dallas, Texas.[24] YugoslaviaFederal Republic of Yugoslavia Yugoslavia * Some ex-Iraqi MiG-23's have been used by Flight Test Center (VOC) in early 1990s. The Albanian Air Force never flew the MiG-23.[25] [edit] Civilian operators United States * Two ex-Czech aircraft, N51734 and N5106E, are registered for civilian use in the United States and are based at New Castle Airport in Wilmington, Delaware.[26] * An ex-Bulgarian VVS aircraft, N923UB, is operational and on display at the Cold War Air Museum near Dallas, Texas. [edit] Notable incidents and accidents * On July 18, 1980, 21 days after the Aerolinee Itavia Flight 870 incident, a Libyan MiG-23 crashed on the Sila Mountains in Castelsilano, Calabria, southern Italy, according to eye witnesses and official reports. Media rumors reported that the plane may actually only have been discovered at that time, and that the pilot's body was decomposed, originated allegations that the MiG may have been shot down at the time of the Flight 870 incident. * On April 26, 1984, United States Air Force Lieutenant General Robert M. Bond was killed when the MiG-23 he was piloting crashed at the Nevada Test Site. At the time of the mishap, Lt. Gen. Bond was serving as Vice Commander of Air Force Systems Command at Andrews Air Force Base, Maryland. * 4 July 1989: A "runaway" Soviet MiG-23 crashed into a house in Belgium, killing an 18-year-old man. * On March 20, 1991, Major Orestes Lorenzo Perez defected in his MiG-23BN to a Naval Air Station in Key West, Florida on a training mission. On December 19, 1992 he returned to Cuba in a borrowed small, twin-engined 1961 Cessna 310, landing on a well known bridge along the coastal highway east of Havana in Northern Matanzas Province at the agreed time. His wife Victoria and their two sons, Reyneil, 11, and Alejandro, 6, were already waiting on his order delivered through a messenger earlier. Orestes Lorenzo Perez picked up his family and managed a successful safe return to Miami. [edit] Specifications (MiG-23MLD Flogger-K) General characteristics * Crew: One * Length: 16.70 m (56 ft 9.5) * Wingspan: Spread, 13.97 m (45 ft 10 in) * Height: 4.82 m (15 ft 9.75 in) * Wing area: 37.35 m² spread, 34.16 m² swept (402.05 ft² / 367.71 ft²) * Empty weight: 9,595 kg (21,153 lb) * Loaded weight: 15,700 kg (34,612 lb) * Max takeoff weight: 18,030 kg (39,749 lb) * Powerplant: 1× Khatchaturov R-35-300 afterburning turbojet, 83.6 kN dry, 127 kN afterburning (18,850 lbf / 28,700 lbf) Performance * Maximum speed: Mach 2.32, 2,445 km/h at altitude; Mach 1.14, 1,350 km/h at sea level (1,553 mph / 840 mph) * Range: 1,150 km with six AAMs combat, 2,820 km ferry (570 mi / 1,750 mi) * Service ceiling: 18,500 m (60,695 ft) * Rate of climb: 240 m/s (47,245 ft/min) * Wing loading: 420 kg/m² (78.6 lb/ft²) * Thrust/weight: 0.88 Armament * 1x Gryazev-Shipunov GSh-23L 23 mm cannon with 200 rounds * Two fuselage, two wing glove, and two wing pylons for up to 3,000 kg (6,610 lb) of stores, including: * R-23/24 (AA-7 Apex) * R-60 (AA-8 Aphid) * also, upgraded aircraft may carry: * R-27 (AA-10 Alamo) * R-73 (AA-11 Archer) * R-77 (AA-12 Adder) According to the MiG-23ML manual, the MiG-23ML has a maximun sustained turn rate of 14.1 deg/sec and a maximum instantaneous turn rate of 16.7 deg/sec. The MiG-23ML accelerates from 600 km/h (373 mph) to 900 km/h (559 mph) in just 12 seconds at the altitude of 1000 meters. The MiG-23 accelerates at the altitude of 1 km from the speed of 630 km/h (391 mph) to 1300 km/h (808 mph) in just 30 seconds and at the altitude of 10–12 km will accelerate from Mach 1 to Mach 2 in just 160 seconds.

Description MY WOMANS, ugh i finally finished this super late but lol i need to stop changing her hair  bjhbgdf she has a cute edgy buzzcut on the side with a skeletal-bone design! for that extra soul reaper edge!! she's related to the first division co-lieutenant. SORRY FOR THE LONG INFO, i'm actually still working on getting her full story down so stay tuned!! "There isn't another woman with a mind, body and feeling made of stone, but a heart full of warmth and strength. With a deep loyalty to her Captain, and a great respect for her comrades, while someone who is ready to die by her own fate, the 7th Division surely suits her." CV: Miyuki Sawashiro "There isn't another woman with a mind, body and feeling made of stone, but a heart full of warmth and strength. With a fierce loyalty to her Captain, and a great respect for her comrades, while someone who is ready to die by her own fate, the 7th Division surely suits her." Full Name: Yomichi Okikiba (Yomichi, meaning "Night Road", not sure about official Okikiba meaning but could mean "Silver Fang" in refrence to Genshiro's white hair lock or literally "Open Sea Fang")((Or whale/krill/some sort of relation to a sea animal + Kiba, meaning "Fang")) Nickname(s): Yomi, Michi Age: 300+ years (Appears to look late 20's, early 30's, joined the Gotei 13 around when she appeared to look like a young adult.) Gender: Female Race: Soul Birthday: March 7th Birth Place: Soul Society, 38th Rukongai District Occupation: Soul Reaper/Shinigami Profession: Lieutenant of 7th Previous Profession: 3rd Seat of 7th  Base of Operations: Soul Society Current Squad/Division: 7th Division Previous Squad/Division: -- Partner(s):Tetsuzaemon Iba, Izuru Kira, Yumichika & Ikkaku Allies: Tetsuzaemon Iba, Izuru Kira, Shuhei Hisagi, Ikkaku Madarame, Yumichika Ayasegawa, Matsumoto Rangiku, Ichigo Kurosaki, etc. She knows alot of people in the Gotei 13, otherwise most other people would be small interactions or seeing them. Other close allies include Noyuki (OC belonging to nLinz) and her Captain, who was previously her seated officer partner, Sakurana Minamoto. Eye Color: Baby Blue Hair Color: Pale/Platinum Blonde Height: 5'8" Weight: 173kg Tattoos/Birthmarks/Scars: none Appearance & Personality Jewelry/Accessories: She wears black sleeves on her arms and a plain choker around her neck. General Appearance: A beautiful woman. Yomichi has long, blonde, straight, messy and flowey hair into a ponytail, her bangs being swept across her face and her back hair extending to half of her torso. She is a voluptuous, big chested woman, with a beauty mark just on her left breast, and another one under her left eye.  During theTYBW after training with her Zanpakuto, Yomichi obtains an eyepatch on her eye. Under the eyepatch, there is a tattoo on her  eyeball. This tattoo represents some new marking associated with her bankai training as a "reward" for unlocking the true potential of her zanpakuto. Her zanpakuto spirit gave her this tattoo by touching her eyeball and sacrificing her eyesight, so she can't see out of her left eye by default. Before Rukia’s Marriage and CFYOW, Yomichi cuts her hair into a bob, cuts her back hair and her bangs unleveled. She obtained a new stylized eyepatch, that sewn in gold. And, she wears a new choker adorned with a blue crystal. She keeps her black sleeves in her current uniform. Due to her promotion, she wears her Lieutenant badge in her lower back. Personality: Yomichi is an cool and extremely level-headed Shinigami. She is a cold, collected and headstrong woman who doesn't care to befriend new people or not. She always comes off as being helpful and supportive or assisting, during work hours or battle. A lot of younger females in her Division and otherwise look up to her. At first glance, many might come to think Yomichi is "brutal, reckless and careless" because of her blunt personality and her actions during battle. Because of her position as a third seat, she believes it would be okay for her to die rather than any rank above her, respecting her Captain and Lieutenant, but not without putting up a fight to show what she is capable of and shouldn't be underestimated by an opponent. This behavior may seem predictable, or relatable to every member ever made of the 7th Division, but Yomichi also lives on the edge; she frankly doesn't care and will slay another heartless enemy without a word. Sometimes this habit will often by seem by "reckless" by her superiors, but it's just the way she likes to roll. If one day her death might come, it's meaningful in the name of the changed Gotei 13, her Captain, her comrades, and her own unique power. This woman is not merciful to enemies and has great confidence in her abilities, though sometimes doubting the mysterious power of her zanpakuto, because it can be deadly. This won't stop him from going all out if necessary, and tends to fight on the same level of her opponents. Her power is undoubtedly similar to a Captain's, but she's had no reason to go so far out, up until Quincy and TBYW arc. -- Unlike Iba, who puts his loyalty before fighting, Yomichi rather puts her loyalty INTO fighting, whereas she will not hesitate to cut down any opponents who wish to harm those around her. She's usually the 2nd to engage in a fight. She even refused a potential captain promotion long ago.  Yomichi has a policy.  "Her sword is her heart." In her Captain's words. A battle is much serious to Yomichi, and she will execute with style.  She doesn't allow herself to become known by others so quickly, thus maintaining close relations with people she's usually around, like Captain Komamura, and her close friend Tetsuzaemon Iba. But, she keeps her perception of others; such as hidden feelings. Yomichi isn't inconsiderate of her allies. She will protect those even when she doesn't show full strength. While she may not be so experienced in affection, she will do her best to boost someone's spirits up, based from her own experiences, giving her a sort of a mom personality. She was even able to understand her Captain on a personal basis because of his friendship with Kaname Tousen.  Yomichi gets quite along well with most people, including Ichigo Kurosaki-- who she actually didn't hesitate to shoot down with Kido a couple times. One of her many friendships is her childhood friend, Iba and her other occasional partners, Yumichika and Ikkaku. Even her occasional drinking rival, Rangiku.  One person she finds it hard to talk to is with Hinamori, who is the complete opposite of her character but respects her bravery. Hobbies/Interests: Training, Polishing/Sharpening her zanpakuto, her secret hobby also includes attempting to cook, according to the Shinigami Woman's Association. Phobias/Fears: Dying without finding her goal or purpose, watching all her comrades die. Love Interest: Izuru Kira (classmate, possibly childhood friend from rukongai) Power & Abilities Combat Durability: Yomichi is shown to be able to endure battles for a long amount of time, even being able to stall for time, and fight through multiple battles. She was able to take on a Reigai-Komamura for a short time by stalling with Kido. Swordsmanship - Expertant in Swordsmanship; Yomichi can handle her zanpakuto with ease. It feels lightweight that most others, and she can block and smoothly parry attacks. Her good sense of tracking improves throughout the years, and she trains everyday to keep her speed up. (Fun Fact: A unique trait about her zanpakuto is that it's longer than average zanpakuto, called an O-Katana "Great Sword"! It's blade also lightweight to her but might feel a little weightend to others.) Spiritual Power: Yomichi has a strong, near captain-level reiatsu, though she usually assumes no one notices it, people close to her would surely know. Her bankai depends on her spiritual pressure, where it actually grows more weaker, because of keeping it hidden by suppressing it. Kido Master - Yomichi is highly knowledgeable in the kido area and knows how to plan accordingly and strategically, even fusing kido spells with others. Though they don't talk about much, Kido is actually her favorite fighting method.  She is skilled with Kido and can summon Kido spells without the use of incantation up to #63 (Raikohou) without trouble. She practices kido incantations occasionally just to not forget one word, and even in battle may use incantations for a more powerful spell.  Signature Kido: Hado #88: Hiryu Gekizoku Shinten Raiho, mostly performed with an incantation Hakuda Practitioner: Yomichi does not excel in physical combat and is limited to a few techniques, as well as not being her favorite or preferred style of fighting. She is at a practitioner level but it's useful for most close-quarter situations., and would be physically too slow to use this method. Her body, especially her upper torso, feels a bit...heavy for her to be able to move quickly. Occasionally, she will land a few physical hits. Physical strength: Yomichi is physically strong, but very under comparison to Komamura. She can carry or pick up most of her comrades, assuming she can pick up to around 280~ pounds. Usually under 180 without trouble. Basically weighs a little over average. Yomichi does say however, that her strength compared to Komamura's is amusingly fragile because of her zanpakuto power. Shunpo - Practitioner or Basic user, Yomichi obviously doesn't have any shunpo techniques or transformations of any sort, but uses basic shunpo techniques such as flash stepping to avoid attacks. Her shunpo is not perfect, but good. She is able to use it from long distances Zanpakuto (wip) Zanpakuto Name: Hakkyou Futatabi [破鏡再び] (Hakkyou meaning "broken mirror" and Futatabi means "Again/Repeated"." Zanpakuto Command: Warime [割り目    わりめ] (Fissure or Fracture, can be translated to crack/break.) Zanpakuto handle color: Black and Purple with a Gold tsuba that has four rectangular structures connected to the tsuba, representing 4 mirrors another Zanpakuto amongst the illuston category, "Shinken Hakkyouken" ,"Kyoka Suigetsu", "Kyuten Kyokoku",  "Hakkyou Futatabi" is a partial of a Japanese proverb for "-Broken Mirror cannot be made to shine" or "broken relationship cannot be repaired"  This signifies the personality of her zanpakuto, a fragile, dysfunctional mirror that was casted aside by its owner because it could not show reflections or perceive light correctly. Instead, the mirror watches. This mirror is completely broken, as a display of its massive power. Shikai: Hakkyoufutatabi  - Yomichi's blade turns into see-through glass, in it's shikai state, it is fragile until the enemy breaks it. The shikai enables the blade to enhance its range and make its attacks lethal. Any sort of material the sword touches, it will crystallize and shatter. It's range is extended by crystallization material caught in it’s swing, similar to ice and mistaken for.  This crystalized glass shatters after a certain about of time, leaving behind an amount of damage in it’s path, or scarring. Shikai Abilities: Kessho Kakera (Precision Shard) - Yomichi draws a line from the tip of her zanpakuto that creates a rectangular, unprotective barrier, similar to Danku. She inserts her Zanpakuto into the barrier, then from the other side, this barrier then starts firing glass shards made out of spiritual energy, but depleting the zanpakuto's blade. Kessho Tsurugi (Precision Cut) - Yomichi halts the flying of the class shards, and her zanpakuto handle makes a line of reiryoku that connects the shards back to the zanpakuto blade. Everything in this path of the shards greatly crystallizes, and then breaks, dealing massive damage to the enemy caught in it. The depleted zanpakuto blade is then restored. (Daiya Hanatabakaika) (lit. blossoming Diamond Bouquet) Large shards of glass that were broken into smaller shards strike the target, then regroups into sharp glass spikes while penetrating the targets flesh. Bankai: Awaremu no Kagami Sekai (Reminiscence of the Mirror World) | Yomichi gently taps her glass zanpakuto against the ground. The ground releases echo-like ripples under Yomichi’s feet, in which the glass will begin to slowly crack. She then raises the zanpakuto, horizontally across her face and it appears to reflect her zanpakuto’s spirit face. The zanpakuto then shatters, all the glass collecting behind her to form several mirrors, leaving her blade empty. The mirrors become a vast extension of her sword. Primary Ability: Glass is under control of Yomichi’s zanpakuto, specializing in long-range abilities. Attacks can be deflected or absorbed off of the mirrors. Bankai  Abilities: 変化の模写化粧鏡 (Engē no Moushiya-Kesshokagami) (lit. Incarnation Copy of the Vanity Mirror)  Mirrors Circulates around Yomichi, going invisible reflecting all sides of her body. It may trick an enemy into thinking Yomichis mirrors are see through, but this is in fact a "decoy reflection" of the mirrors. When coming in close contact with the mirrors, Yomichi's single sword pierces through all sides of the mirrors. This can act as an increased defense mechanism or a surprise attack. New Ultimate Ability: Awaremu no Kagami Makai, Naraku Sanmenkyoyomi. (Reminiscence of the Mirror World, Path of the Tri-Mirror), Conjures tri-mirrors that opens up a forth mirror on the ground, which opens up an eyeball (the eye of hakyou futatabi on yomichis eye) and lets out a short length blade representing the "demon dagger/cursed blade" (that when stabbed, it sends you to hell, similar the the folklore, that's used in various anime and now bleach; hint: ukitake's sword coming out of that hell gate lol, but in yomichi's case, this is the "path to the mirrored demon world" a different nonexistent dimensional world, that when stabbed, you'll get pulled into the mirrors that are connected to the "mirror world", this is a significant meaning for "Naraku" which is also related to hell or demons, or "Naraku Path", which also means "trap room" or "the bottom/worst possible circumstance", that is Yomichi's bankai entrapping and ensnaring it's victim into her world when the bankai is summoned, because those who faces this bankai's fate, is a fate worst than death, and merciless to none, that would even incl. Yomichi. Sanmenkyo (三面鏡) stands for 3-sided Mirror, referring to the 3 mirror risen from the ground. The eye is Hakyoufutatabi, who lurks behind the mirrors as a supernatural, eerie being.) Yomichi’s spiritual pressure is dispersed into the entirety of the bankai, releasing a horrifyingly path of reflected swords that rise from the ground, wanting to ensnare it’s target into it’s range, and pull them back into the mirror, retracting them.  Battles (wip)     Yomichi in the Arcs/Events (wip) Ryoka Arc: After the meeting of the Gotei 13 meeting about Gin’s act, and Kenpachi exiting the 1st Division Barracks, Yomichi is after the Ryoka invaders after the announcement with most of the Gotei 13. After Ichigo encounters Yumichika and Ikkaku, moments later, Yomichi alone stumbles upon Ichigo (Around the time that 7th Divisions 4th Seat, Jirobo Ikkanzaka encounters Uryu and Orihime), who she intends on killing but ends up not fighting him. Yomichi figures one of the Captains will likely kill him. Instead, Yomichi withdraws, in search of Komamura, which begins her involvement with the events of the betrayal of Aizen, Gin and Kaname Tosen weeks later. Yomichi had returned to her barracks, as at this point, Komamura said "he wanted to be left alone." Yomichi had not seen her Captain for days.  Bount Arc:  -- When Captain Toshiro Hitsugaya begins to put together a team to go to the World of The Living to deal with the bounts attacking humans, Yomichi is put together in a team with Yumichika, Rangiku Matsumoto, Shuhei Hisagi and Izuru Kira. With Yumichika's complaints on why he was selected to be put in a group, Yomichi told Toshiro the two aren't very compatible in a team due to their major differences. Of course, Toshiro said they would have to deal with it, after all it's not about them, but Yomichi figured there wouldn't be much to do in the barracks, due to her Captain's isolation and it cuts the paperwork. Upon arriving, Yomichi arrives with Yumichika but tells him she doesn't want to stay with him because his constant bickering about "beauty and such" gets on her nerves. Yumichika argues with Yomichi on the matter, but Yomichi tells him that she doesn't care, and he'd be best better off if Ikkaku was around, but unfortunately he wasn't. Yomichi then leaves Yumichika on his own to follow the rest of the group to assist Ichigo and friends. Unfortunately sooner enough because she didn't get far and was regrouped with the Team, Yomichi had encountered the Ugaki and doll. Sustaining durability in battle, Yomichi deflects Gesell's Wachter with Hakkyou Futatabi's glass, then destroys the eyes with her zanpakuto. She then uses Hyapporankan to conflict with Ugaki's spear card, but then she then became injured from one of Gesell's spears, one plummeting through her shoulder, before rocks tumbled onto her by Ugaki's smash card unexpectedly.  One rock pinned down her arm holding the zanpakuto, and one rock completely pinned down her zanpakuto itself, ultimately crushing a few of her fingers and fracturing her knuckle and parts of her arm that still held the sword. Her other arm offered protection over her torso and sustained injuries of heavy sprains and fractures,, but there was a deal of pressure over her body from the rocks as she was buried underneath with no light source or air, that she ended up passing out from the pain and lack of oxygen with the bleeding making her lightheaded. As the second wave of attacks from Ichigo and friends taking place, Yomichi is later recovered and dug up by Izuru  and Shuhei who also have sustained injuries. The unconscious Yomichi was unable to wake up and her zanpakuto looked rugged, but the two were able to pull Yomichi onto her feet as she regained oxygen. Izuru would have commented on her weight, as she apparently seemed heavy to carry but that may have been due to them being weakened from injuries. She would soon had regained consciousness, and winced in pain when she held her multi-fractured arm close, while her zanpakuto was in her other hand. When they caught up with Ichigo, Uryu, Renji, Rukia, Orihime and Rangiku, Yomichi stayed behind with the remaining to get healed by Orihime. Yomichi states she feels useless, that she failed her battle merely cause she couldn't understand the enemy nor see him physically. Orihime tries to reassure Yomichi and cheer her up that she fought well and even helped to protect humans nor tried to hurt Ichigo. Coming to Yomichi's surprise, she then looked away from Orihime, as she remembered she hadn't seen her captain in a while and knows he's going through things. Orihime would see her wince in pain, trying to distract herself from the things on her mind. Matsumoto told Yomichi to stop covering up her emotions and feelings, noting that she had loyal "affection" for some particular others and actually cares, but Yomichi told her to shut up, especially not to say those things in front of the others. Arrancar Arc: TBA  Part 1 -- White Invasion: Yomichi is positioned into hiding as backup in case the other lieutenants and seats had fallen at their pillars with the Arrancar in Fake Karakura Town. She hides at the bottom of the town nearby as a reinforcement on standby, Yomichi watches the battles from above, while using her free time to seek out the fallen bodies of Kira and Iba. From there, an Arrancar shows himself on the ground from around the corner, The Arrancar notes how he didn’t think another shinigami, apart from the ones that were “dead” would be snooping around on the ground, questioning if she was not doing her job. Yomichi informs him that the other shinigami weren’t dead, but in fact injured and she was looking for them, asking if he had seen them already. The arrancar implies he hasn’t seen any shinigami yet until now, indicating that it must be time to engage in a battle. The arrancar introduces himself as Manuel Ginza, Fraccion of Szayel Apporo-Granz, and how it would be a pity he’d have to end up hurting a woman. He commented that judging by her stern look, she was probably stronger than she seemed and it should be a long-lasting battle. The battle starts with the two drawing their zanpakuto, and Manuel vanishing forward with Sonido, exchanging sword impact with Yomichi. 12 consecutive slashes to each other's swords, Manuel stating that for her size, Yomichi was durable against his strength. Coming from a division consisting of mostly men, she should be. Testing her strength further, Manuel backed away from Yomichi, slashing his zanpakuto downward and sending multiple Bala in her direction, Yomichi blocks with a Danku without an incantation in merely milliseconds before hitting her. A surprised Manuel asked what the barrier was, Yomichi explained the barrier can block a Kido up to Level 89, or in her case, an exceptionally weak attack that just nearly hit her just now. Manuel continues to fire with multiple Bala, causing the shield to eventually break and explode on impact. This causes a smokescreen across the battlefield, leaving the scene quiet for a moment.  Seconds later through the smoke, a white light shines out of the cloud, revealing to fire multiple white reiryoku shards toward the Arrancar at nearly the same speed of the Bala, leaving Manuel to dodge just above the scene, but resulting in his leg being cut in two places. Blood dripped down the Arrancars wound, annoying him, peering into the smoke from above as it cleared. The woman appeared to be standing there with little casualty of but tattered clothes and smudges to the face, her sword changing into a new form that looked crystal clear, like glass. Yomichi had bought time to activate her shikai, saying that multiple projectiles flying at someone doesn’t feel too good. Disregarding the shinigami has similar tricks up her sleeve, the Arrancar vanishes toward the woman yet again; slashing in front of her, the Arrancar rotates behind her, in which she swings her zanpakuto over her shoulder, blocking his attacks. He chuckles, before repeatedly using sonido around the woman that it confused her, as finally a Bala exploded onto her side, sending her flying into a building wall on impact. Manuel noted if she could put up with strength, and she must lack in stealth.  Later in the battle of now devastating debris laying on the ground, Yomichi sits behind a building in the shadows, looking out to the street. Manuel, who now revealed his resurrection, takes the form of a giant iguana who is camouflaging with the surroundings, Yomichi having difficulties trying to spot him out in the open. She would have to use her ears, to find his location. Her ears shivered when she heard some pebbles fall from the side of her, flash stepping by her instinct away from the area, but there was nothing there. By alert, she held her zanpakuto across from her chest, looking around furthermore. The arrancar revealed himself just above Yomichi, “Paranoid?” he asked, firing a blue-colored Cero just above her head, crashing into the ground. Yomichi had barely dodged the cero, her movement was drastically being slowed from the prolonged battle. Before she could look up at the same area again, the Arrancar had already disappeared. Yomichi continued to leap backward, looking around for the Arrancar. She knew he was following her cause she heard him landing in several areas. Soon, she stopped moving in a certain spot, following a moment of silence. After a long game of hide-and-seek chase, Manuel found himself completely suspended, shocked that his hands were stuck on some invisible net he walked into, soon revealing multiple threads attached to several of the surrounding buildings, and all connecting to Yomichi’s hand. She held it up to her face, revealing Manuel he had walked into her trap, revealing a hidden kido net. Yet, playing his tricks against him again, Manuel was entangled in the net, revealing his full form, his body in an iguana-like structure, walking on all fours, and mostly covered in bone manner.   Yomichi congratulated him for walking into her trap, and ultimately looking forward to ending the battle. She then held up her zanpakuto against the threads, and releasing Hado #11: Tsuzuri Raiden through the threads, traveling toward the trapped iguana, and ultimately electrocuting him, his screams could be heard traveling through the allies.  The Arrancar falls to the ground as the kido nets vanish, Yomichi walking over the stunned man who rolled onto his hand, electricity still coursing through his body. Standing over the arrancar, Yomichi holds her bladeless zanpakuto handle over the Arrancars body, her foot resting against his armored side. “Why don’t you just lie there and bleed for a while?” The cold words slipping from Yomichi’s lips, ultimately stabbing the Arrancar through the chest with Kessho Tsurugi, making a huge gash through almost the entirety of his hollowed torso.  Part 2.  After her battle with Manuel Ginza, who is now bleeding on the ground,  Yomichi appeared in the middle of Komamura and Tosen’s fight, giving Tosen a lecture on his betrayal of someone who dearly trusted him and was his friend, only to worthlessly stoop down so low, so cast it aside carelessly. Tosen, who had no interest in fighting Yomichi, merely ignored her comment. Yomichi was cut down by Aizen from behind after greeting her, and how she had been faring in her days on the Soul Society, sustaining heavy injury, Yomichi fell back down onto a taller building in Karakura that impacted her long fall. Reigai Arc  Hueco Mundo Arc  Zanpakuto Rebellion Arc  Fullbringer Arc  Quincy Arc WE DO (KNOT) ALWAYS LOVE YOU  Beginning of the Revival of Tomorrow Can’t Fear Your Own World BLEACH: Memories of Nobody BLEACH: The Diamond Dust Rebellion BLEACH: Fade To Black Yomichi vs Ichigo Kurosaki | Draw Yomichi vs Kira Izuru | Loss  Yomichi vs Ikkaku Madarame | Won Yomichi vs Sergio D’Ascenzo | Draw Yomichi vs Manuel Ginza | Won  Yomichi vs Reigai-Yomichi | Won Yomichi vs Reigai-Komamura | Loss  Yomichi vs Hyakkou Futatabi | Won, but heavily injured Yomichi vs Yukio’s Monsters | Won Yomichi vs Alrich Abercrombie | Won Yomichi vs Annie Aargaard | Won Yomichi vs Ikimikidomoe | Loss Friendships & Relationships Awajiro Okikiba: Yomichi’s father and role model. The Ex-captain of the Kido Corps, and the ex-Lieutenant of Unohana. Awajiro has a very close father-and-daughter relationship with Yomichi, and taught her about her spiritual powers at a young age, making her strive to become a Shinigami. Noyuki Aburame: Yomichi’s junior from Shino Academy. Noyuki, who in the beginning, called Yomichi her “Senpai” and looked up to her so, Yomichi was often annoyed with her. Eventually, they grew up together in their academic days and became friends after a certain event.  Komamura Sajin: The beast who Yomichi views as a courageous man and deeply respects. Her loyalty to Komamura is rooted, and he helped her see potential that was hidden to her before when she was just a newly grad who was quiet. Though their abilities are completely opposite, they stand together as a team. Also, cause she likes wolves and knew something un-human like was under his helmet because of a certain scent. (CFYOW) Komamura Urui & Shouma: Sajin's nephews! They're very cute, and refer to Yomichi- as "Big Sis". She loves petting them, and sworn to protect them with her life. -- to herself that is. Sajin often jokes that Yomichi and Tetsuzaemon are suitable for being parents. Izuru Kira - They went to school together. Rather it was Izuru who had a light crush on the female.Yomichi was oblivious to Kira, but was his friend. Shortly after graduated, they became slightly distant to their their differences in Captains. Genshiro Okikiba | Uncle: Semi-close in terms of at-home family relationship. Yomichi doesn't really talk to Genshiro, but he acknowledges her existence in the Gotei 13. Tetsuzaemon Iba: Iba and Yomichi were childhood friends back in Rukongai. Around the same time Iba transferred into the 7th Division from the 11th, Yomichi was recruited into the 7th Division and they met each other again, deciding to stick together until end. She proudly sees him through to being her Captain. Though they're a little different in age, he's like the big brother she never had.  Chikane Iba: Met the woman once. Chikane thought Yomichi was un-lady like and a disgraceful woman for her fashion choices. Chikane also scolded Yomichi, and thought she as going to be his future wife; which she didn’t like the thought of. Chikane also dated Yomichi’s father once a long time ago, she’s the reason why he was scared of woman at one point. Shuhei Hisagi: Met during Tosen and Komamura’s friendship, They hang out now and then, mostly due to his Tosen and Komamura's friendship would often leave the two hanging to do activities. They never fought together, Though, they both admire each others style and fashion. Probably wouldn’t make a good duo in fighting though. Rangiku Matsumoto: Her drinking buddy. Also, one of the first woman to befriend Yomichi, and admiring how both of them are "sexy"! Yomichi gets pissed off with her sometimes, but she deals with it.  Rukia Kuchiki: Another classmate. The two stayed together as female friends back in Shin'o, and graduated. They mostly we seen together in the Kido classes. Yomichi attended Rukia's wedding, and saw her off as the new 13th Divison Captain.     Brief Relationships (Pre-Ryoka Invasion) Kaname Tosen: Seen him before with Komamura and during tasks. He asked her a question once. Yomichi assumed he was a good friend of Komamura and Shuhei. She might've said hello once or twice in passing. Brief History Shino Academy: Yomichi was a regular student who had an interest in Hakuda, before realizing she wasn’t suited for this sort of combat. She had shown a natural talent in her Kido classes, which she eventually pursued. Her Kido skill had immediately progressed week by week, and she learned that very few Kido spells such as barriers and some Bakudo, could go without an incantation. It was recommended that she was very well suitable to join the Kido Corps, but she refused as her interest was held in the Gotei 13. Graduation: Yomichi graduates after well around 5-10 years. Yomichi finds out she is assigned to the 7th Division, due to excelling in a strong display of sword and strength in combat. She also acknowledged that Kido wasn’t exactly the 7th Divisions strongpoint, but that didn’t discourage her from using Kido and practicing it frequently. Yomichi meets an armored Captain Komamura, rumored to not look “Human”. She didn’t care much about his looks, but was very much curious to know what he looked like due to a animal-like scent she smelled from him. Surrounding new graduates backed way from the giant armored man, but Yomichi stood in place, their major difference in height not bothering her at all. She bowed at greeted Komamura as a new graduate. Komamura was rather impressed yet confused by the woman’s reaction, bowing to her in return. He looks the woman in the eyes, a strong and stern expression; welcoming her into the division. He reassures her that they do not get many females in their primarily male division, and that she should not expect to be treated any differently than a man. Yomichi understands, and promises to not disappoint and meet up to his expectations. In the 7th Division: Yomichi had settled her first few weeks into division, doing her usual tasks and occasional training. She, who was not intimidated by the many stronger-looking men who would laugh behind her back. It would have came to an apparent day that a larger unseated Shinigami stood before the unseated Yomichi took her zanpakuto. The shinigami teased the smaller woman as he held her zanpakuto up to a height she couldn’t reach. Yomichi didn’t reach for the zanpakuto which angered the man, coming to the conclusion that she was implying she was “much more better than him” for not reaching for the zanpakuto.  Yomichi states that Komamura told her “she would not get treated differently from a man” in which she also states that “she would not treat a man differently, but surely only an idiot would play his game.” The male began to look confused as she charged up her right arm with purple colored reiryoku, and punched the male with such force, that it disfigured his face and he ended up stumbling backward into a wall. In victory, Yomichi reclaimed her Zanpakuto, and that if he wanted to fight her, it should be a fair blade-against-blade battle, but if he insisted on going without swords, she would beat him. Since that event, many of the men in the division would learn to not target or look down at Yomichi, or any other woman within the 7th. It would also encourage other females in the 7th to look up to Yomichi. The next day, Yomichi was called into Komamura’s office to discuss her conduct. She had explained what happened, and that she would not allow anyone to look down on her for a pointless perception, leaving Komamura to give her a motivational speech about not backing down from a fight, having a strong-willed fighting spirit, or “lowering her tail between her legs”, commending her for so. In the end, she and the male shinigami were still punished for the minor damage they caused, and had to repair it. Surprisingly, they had worked together. Since then, Yomichi deeply respected her captain for not ever looking down on her, as she continued to stand on her own two feet. Til’ her current days, her honor still stands by her word and Komamura. Trivia Yomichi had also been recommended to the 4th Division under Retsu Unohana due to her Kido skills. Yomichi had actually thought about this, but knew her power did not lie in healing others. However, Yomichi, though rare, is capable of healing but it’s isn’t great. Yomichi felt the “seifuku” sensation when Kira was critically injured by Bazz-B. However, she didn’t have the time to react nor’ to go save him due to her encounter with Alrich Abercrombie, whom stole Yomichi’s Bankai.

“If the Black Death caused the Renaissance, will COVID also create a golden age?” Versions of this question have been going around as people, trying to understand the present crisis, reach for history’s most famous pandemic.  Using history to understand our present is a great impulse, but it means some of the false myths we tell about the Black Death and Renaissance are doing new damage, one of the most problematic in my view being the idea that sitting back and letting COVID kill will somehow by itself naturally make the economy turn around and enter a period of growth and rising wages. Brilliant Medievalists have been posting Black Death pieces correcting misconceptions and flailing as one does when an error refuted 50 times returns the 51st (The Middle Ages weren’t dark and bad compared to the Renaissance!!!).  As a Renaissance historian, I feel it’s my job to shoulder the other half of the load by talking about what the Renaissance was like, confirming that our Medievalists are right, it wasn’t a better time to live than the Middle Ages, and to talk about where the error comes from, why we think of the Renaissance as a golden age, and where we got the myth of the bad Middle Ages. Only half of this is a story about the Renaissance.  The other half is later: Victorian Britain, Italy’s unification, World Wars I and II, the Cold War, ages in which the myth of the golden Renaissance was appropriated and retold.  And yes, looking at the Black Death and Renaissance is helpful for understanding COVID-19’s likely impact, but in addition to looking at 1348 we need to look at its long aftermath, at the impact Yersinia Pestis had on 1400, and 1500, and 1600, and 1700.  So: This post is for you if you’ve been wondering whether Black Death => Renaissance means COVID => Golden Age, and  you want a more robust answer than, “No no no no no!” This post is for you if you’re tired of screaming The Middle Ages weren’t dark and bad! and want somewhere to link people to, to show them how the myth began. This post is for you if you want to understand how an age whose relics make it look golden in retrospect can also be a terrible age to live in. And this post is for you if want to ask what history can tell us about 2020 and come away with hope. Because comparing 2020 to the Renaissance does give me hope, but it’s not the hope of sitting back expecting the gears of history to grind on toward prosperity, and it’s not the hope for something like the Renaissance—it’s hope for something much, much better, but a thing we have to work for, all of us, and hard. I started writing this post a few weeks ago but rapidly discovered that a thorough answer will be book-length (the book’s now nearly done in fact).  What I’m sharing now is just a precis,  the parts I think you’ll find most useful now.  So sometimes I’ll make a claim without examples, or move quickly over important things, just linking to a book instead of explaining, because my explanation is approaching 100,000 words.  That book will come, and soon, but meanwhile please trust me as I give you just urgent parts, and I promise more will follow. Now, to begin, the phrase “golden age” really invokes two different unrelated things: (1) an era that achieved great things, art, science, innovation, literature, an era whose wondrous achievements later eras marvel at, (2) a good era to live, prosperous, thriving, stable, reasonably safe, with chances for growth, social ascent, days when hard work pays off, in short an era which—if you had to be stranded in some other epoch of history—you’d be likely to choose. The Renaissance fits the first—we line up to see its wonders in museums—but it absolutely positively no-way-no-how fit the second, and that’s a big part of where our understandings of Renaissance vs. Medieval go wrong.  So, our outline for today: Renaissance Life was Worse than the Middle Ages (super-compressed version) Where did the myth come from in the first place? (a Renaissance story) Why is the myth of a golden Renaissance retold so much? (a post-Renaissance story) Conclusion: We Should Aim for Something Better than the Renaissance Leading my study abroad Florence students on our THIRD Uffizi visit. It’s also important to begin this knowing that I love the Renaissance, I wouldn’t have dedicated my life to studying it if I didn’t, it’s an amazing era.  I disagree 100% with people who follow “The Middle Ages weren’t really a Dark Age!” with “The Renaissance sucks, no one should care about it!”  The Renaissance was amazing, equally amazing as the Middle Ages, or antiquity, or now.  I don’t love the Renaissance for being perfect.  I love it because it was terrible yet still achieved so much.  I love it because, when I read a letter where a woman talks of a nearby city burning, and armies approaching, and a friend who just died of the plague, and letter also talks about ideas for how to remedy these evils, and Xenophon’s advice for times of war, and how Plato and Seneca differ in their advice on patience, and the marvelous new fresco that’s been finished in the city hall.  To find these voices of people who faced all that yet still came through it brimming with ideas and making art, that makes me love the human species all the more.  And gives me hope. In Florence, there are little kiosks near the David where you can buy replicas of it, and alongside the plain ones they have copies dipped in glitter paint, so the details of Michelangelo’s design are all obscured with globs of sparkling goo.  That’s what the golden age myth does to the Renaissance.  So when I say the Renaissance was grim and horrible, I’m not saying we shouldn’t study it it, I just want you to scrape off the glitter paint and see the details underneath: damaged, imperfect, a strange mix of ancient and new, doing its best to compensate for flaws in the material and mistakes made early on when teamwork failed, and violent too—David is, after all, about to kill an enemy, a celebration of a conquest, not a peace.  Glitter drowns all that out, and this is why, while the myth of the golden Renaissance does terrible damage to how we understand the Middle Ages, it does just as much damage to how we understand the Renaissance.  So let’s take a quick peek beneath the glitter, and then, more important, let’s talk about where that suffocating glitter comes from in the first place. Part 1: Renaissance Life was Worse than the Middle Ages (super-condensed version) The Renaissance was like Voldemort, terrible, but great. On February 25th 1506, Ercole Bentivoglio, commander of Florence’s armies, wrote to Machiavelli.  He had just read Machiavelli’s Deccenale primo, a history in verse of the events of the last decade. Bentivoglio urged Machiavelli to continue and expand the history, not for them, but for future generations, so that: “knowing our wretched fortune in these times, they should not blame us for being bad defenders of Italic honor, and so they can weep with us over our and their misfortune, knowing from what a happy state we fell within brief time into such disaster.  For if they did not see this history, they would not believe what prosperity Italy had before, since it would seem impossible that in so few days our affairs could fall to such great ruin.” Of these days of precipitous ruin, Burkhardt, founder of modern Renaissance studies, wrote in 1869: “The first decades of the sixteenth century, the years when the Renaissance attained its fullest bloom, were not favorable to a revival of patriotism; the enjoyment of intellectual and artistic pleasures, the comforts and elegancies of life, and the supreme interests of self-development, destroyed or hampered love of country.” (The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy, end of Part 1) Burkhardt seems to be describing a different universe from Bentivoglio, so desperate to prove to posterity that he tried his failing best to defend his homeland’s honor.  Yet this was the decade that produced Leonardo’s Mona Lisa, Michelangelo’s David, Raphael’s Marriage of the Virgin, Bramante’s design for the new St. Peter’s Basilica, Josquin des Prez’s El grillo (the Cricket), the first chapters of Ariosto’s epic Orlando Furioso, and Castiglione’s first courtly works at the court of Urbino, soon to be immortalized in the Courtier as the supreme portrait of Renaissance culture.  These masterworks do indeed seem to project a world of enjoyment and artistic pleasure in utter disconnect with Bentivoglio’s despair.  Can this be the same Renaissance? This double vision is authentic to the sources.  If we read treatises, orations, dedicatory prefaces, writings on art or courtly conduct, and especially if we read works written about this period a few decades later—like Vasari’s Lives of the Artists which will be the first to call this age a rinascita—we see what Jacob Burkhardt described, and what popular understandings of the Renaissance focus on: a self-conscious golden age bursting with culture, art, discovery, and vying with the ancients for the title of Europe’s most glorious age.  Burkhardt’s assessment was correct, if we look only at the sources he was looking at.  If instead we read the private letters which flew back and forth between Machiavelli and his correspondents we see terror, invasion, plague deaths, a desperate man scrambling to even keep track of the ever-moving threats which hem his fragile homeland in from every side, as friends and family beg for frequent letters, since every patch of silence makes them fear the loved one might be dead. Published lament for the assassination of one of the Dukes of Milan – not the same murders Ercole’s parents were directly involved with, but a cousin, and another link in the long and bloody chain. Machiavelli’s correspondent, Ercole Bentivoglio, typifies the tangled political web which shaped these years.  His father had been Sante Bentivoglio, who began as a blacksmith’s son and common laborer but was identified as an illegitimate member of the Bentivoglio family that dominated Bologna (remember Gendry in Game of Thrones?), so Sante was called to rule Bologna for a while when the only other adult Bentivoglio was murdered in an ambush, and young Ercole grew up in a quasi-princely court with all the grandeur we now visit in museums.  Ercole’s mother was Ginevra Sforza, an illegitimate niece of Francesco Sforza who had recently conquered Milan, replacing the earlier Visconti dukes who had in turn seized the throne by treachery fifty-five years before.  Renaissance politics isn’t turtles all the way down, it’s murders and betrayals all the way down. Why was life in the Renaissance so bad?  This is going to be a tiny compressed version of what in the book will be 100 pages, but for now I’ll focus on why the Renaissance was not a golden age to actually live in, even if it was a golden age in terms of what it left behind. Let’s look at life expectancy:  In Italy, average life expectancies in the solidly Medieval 1200s were 35-40, while by the year 1500 (definitely Renaissance) life expectancy in Italian city states had dropped to 18. Images of swaddled infants, from the Innocenti foundling hospital in Florence It’s striking how consistently, when I use these numbers live, the shocked and mournful silence is followed by a guy objecting: those numbers are deceptive, you’re including infant mortality—voiced as if this observation should discredit them.  Yes, the average of 18 does include infant mortality, but the Medieval average of 35 includes it too, so the drop is just as real.  If you want we can exclude those who die before age 12, and we do get a smaller total drop then, average age of death 54 in the 1200s dropping to 45-48 in 1500, so only a 12-16% drop instead of 48%, but the more we zoom the grimmer the Renaissance half proves.  Infant mortality (within 12 months) averaged 28% both before and after 1348, so the big drop from Medieval to Renaissance Italy is actually kids who made it past the first year, only to die in years 2-12 from new diseases.  We also think of the dangers of childbirth as lowering women’s lifespans, but death from childbirth stayed steady from Medieval to Renaissance at (for Tuscany) 1 death per 40 births, while the increase in war and violence made adult male mortality far higher than female even with the childbirth threat.  If we look at the 20% of people who lived longest in Renaissance Italy it’s almost entirely widows and nuns, plus a few diehards like Titian, and poor exiled Cardinal da Costa of Portugal languishing in Rome to the age of 102, with everyone he’d known in the first 2/3rds of his life long gone.  Kids died more in the Renaissance, adults died more, men died more, we have the numbers, but I find it telling how often people who hear these numbers try to discredit them, search for a loophole, because these facts rub against our expectations.  We didn’t want a wretched golden age. (Demographics are, of course, an average, and different bits of Europe varied, but I’m using the numbers for the big Italian city-states precisely because they’re the bit of Europe we most associate with the golden Renaissance, so if it’s true there, it’s true of the Renaissance you were imagining.) Why did life expectancy drop?  Counter-intuitively the answer is, largely, progress. Look what we can make now! A pistol that shoots nine random directions at once! (Bargello museum) War got worse, for one.  Over several centuries, innovations in statecraft and policy (which would continue gradually for centuries more) had increased the centralization of power in the hands of kings and governments, especially their ability to gather funds, which meant they could raise larger armies and have larger, bloodier wars.  Innovations in metallurgy, chemistry, and engineering also made soldiers deadlier, with more artillery, more lethal weapons, more ability to knock a town’s walls down and kill everyone inside, new daggers designed to leave wounds that would fester, or anti-personnel artillery designed to slice a line of men in half.  Thus, while both the Middle Ages and Renaissance had lots of wars, Renaissance wars were larger and deadlier, involving more troops and claiming more lives, military and civilian—this wasn’t a sudden change, it was a gradual one, but it made a difference. Economic growth also made the life expectancy go down.  Europe was becoming more interconnected, trade increasing.  This was partly due to innovations in banking (which had started in the 1100s), and partly, yes, the aftermath of the Black Death which caused a lot of economic change—not growth but change—some sectors growing, others shrinking, people moving around, people trying to stop people from moving around, markets shifting.  There were also innovations in insurance, for example insuring your cargo ship so if it sinks you don’t go bankrupt like our Merchant of Venice.  This meant more multi-region trade. For example, weaving wool into fine-quality non-itchy thread required a lot of oil, without which you could only make coarse, itchy thread.  England produced lots of wool but no oil (except walnuts), so, in the Renaissance, entrepreneurs from England, instead of spinning low-profit itchy wool, started exporting their wool to Italy where abundant olive oil made it cheap to produce high-quality cloth and re-export it to England and elsewhere.  This let merchants grow rich, prosperity for some, but when people move around more, diseases move more too.  Cities were also growing denser, more manufacturing jobs and urban employment drawing people to crowd inside tight city walls, and urban spaces always have higher mortality rates than rural.  Malaria, typhoid, dysentery, deadly influenza, measles, the classic pox, these old constants of Medieval life grew fiercer in the Renaissance, with more frequent outbreaks claiming more lives. The Black Death contributed too—in school they talk as if the plague swept through in 1348 then went away, but the bubonic plague did not go away, it remained endemic, like influenza or chickenpox today, a fact of life.  I have never read a full set of Renaissance letters which didn’t mention plague outbreaks and plague deaths, and Renaissance letters from mothers to their traveling sons regularly include, along with advice on etiquette and eating enough fennel, a list of which towns to avoid this season because there’s plague there.  Carlo Cipolla (in the fascinating yet tediously titled Before the Industrial Revolution) collected great data for the two centuries after 1348, in which Venice had major plague bursts 7% of years, Florence 14% of years, Paris 9% of years, Barcelona 13% of years, and England (usually London) 22% in the earlier period spiking to 50% in the later 1500s, when England saw plague in 26 out of 50 years between 1543 and 1593.  Excluding tiny villages with little traffic, losing a friend or sibling to plague was a universal experience from 1348 clear to the 1720s, when plague finally diminished in Europe, not because of any advance in medicine, but because fourteen generations of exposure gave natural selection time to work, those who survived to reproduce passing on a heightened immune response, a defensive adaptation bought over centuries by millions of deaths. The real villain: Y. Pestis, the bacterium that causes plague Today thousands of cases of Y. pestis (the plague bacterium) still occur each year, largely in sub-Saharan Africa and East Asia where it was not endemic so immunities didn’t develop.  And if geneticist Mihai Netea is correct that the immune mutation which helps those of European descent resist Y. pestis also causes our greater rate of autoimmune disorders, then the Black Death is still constantly claiming lives through the changes it worked into European DNA over 400 years (and literally causing me pain as I type this, as my own autoimmune condition flares).  While the 1348 pandemic was Medieval, most of the Middle Ages did not have the plague—it’s the Renaissance which has the plague every single day as an apocalyptic lived reality. Economic growth also made non-military violence worse.  Feuds (think Montagues and Capulets) were a Medieval constant, but the body count of a feud depends a lot on how wealthy the head families are, since the greater their wealth and the larger their patronage network, the larger the crowd of goons on stage in the opening scene of Romeo & Juliet when partisans of the two factions are biting their thumbs at each other, and the larger the number of unnamed men who also get killed in the background while Romeo fights Tybalt.  In Italy especially, new avenues for economic growth (banking and mercenary work) quickly made families grow wealthy enough to raise forces far larger than the governments of their little city states, which made states powerless to stop the violence, and vulnerable to frequent, bloody coups.  The Bentivoglios of Bologna and Sforza of Milan (whose marriage alliance produced Ercole who wrote that letter to Machiavelli) had risen by force, ruled by force, and were in turn overthrown by force, several times each, in fact, as rulers were killed, then avenged by returning sons or nephews, and cities flip-flopped between rival dynasties every few years: Look what happens with the Dukes of Urbino 1440s-1530s In the 1400s most cities in Italy saw at least four violent regime changes, some of them as many as ten or twelve, commixed with bloody civil wars and factional massacres, until all Italy’s ruling houses were so new that the Knights Hospitaller—who normally required knights to have been noble four generations to join—let Italians in with only two generations because otherwise there would have been no one.  Petrarch talked about this in his poem Italia Mia, which we think was written by 1347 (i.e. before the Black Death); he described Italy’s flesh covered with mortal wounds, caused by “cruel wars for light causes, and hearts, hardened and closed/ by proud, fierce Mars,” and his poor poem begging Italy’s proud, hard-hearted people for, “Peace, peace, peace.”  It sounds just like what Ercole described to Machiavelli, doesn’t it?   Well, Petrarch’s poem is as far from Machiavelli’s history as Napoleon’s rise from Yuri Gagarin’s space flight, a long time during which the wars grew worse, armies bigger, cities richer, plagues more frequent, steady escalation of the same things Petrarch feared would wipe out Italy 150 years before. Important: none of this was new in the Renaissance!  These were all gradual developments: banking, trade, centralization, the cultural produce of the Renaissance too (paintings, cathedrals, music, epics), these had all been gradually ramping up for centuries, changing the character of Europe decade by decade.  Banking innovations started in the 1100s, insurance innovations in the 1300s, economic shifts before as well as after 1348, political shifts accumulated centuries, it’s all incremental. Thus, when I try to articulate the real difference between Renaissance and Medieval, I find myself thinking of the humorous story “Ever-So-Much-More-So” from Centerburg Tales (1951).  A traveling peddler comes to town selling a powder called Ever-So-Much-More-So.  If you sprinkle it on something, it enhances all its qualities good and bad.  Sprinkle it on a comfy mattress and you get mattress paradise, but if it had a squeaky spring you’ll never sleep again for the noise.  Sprinkle it on a radio and you’ll get better reception, but agonizing squeals when signal flares.  Sprinkle it on the Middle Ages and you get the Renaissance.  All key qualities were already there, good things as well as bad, poetry, art, currents of trade, thought, finance, law, and statecraft changing year by year, but add some Ever-So-Much-More-So and the intensity increases, birthing an era great and terrible.  Many different changes reinforced each other, all in continuity with what came before, just higher magnitude, the fat end of a wedge of cheese, but it’s the same cheese on the thin end too.  The line we draw—our slice across the cheese—we started drawing because people living in the Renaissance started to draw it, felt it was different, claimed it was different, and their claims reordered the way we think about history. Some more quick un-fun facets of Renaissance life: while the Medieval Inquisition started in 1184, it didn’t ramp up its book burnings, censorship, and executions to a massive scale until the Spanish Inquisition in the 1470s and then the printing press and Martin Luther in the 1500s (Renaissance); similarly witchcraft persecution surges to scales unseen in the Middle Ages after the publication of the Malleus Maleficarum in 1486 (Renaissance); and the variety of ingenious tortures being used in prisons increased, rather than decreasing, over time.  Rule of thumb: most of the scary practices we think of as “Medieval” were either equally true of the Renaissance, worse in the Renaissance, or only started in the Renaissance. If you want corrupt popes, they too can be more terrible as they get richer. And pre-sanitation, the more luxury goods traveled, the more people grew wealthy, the wider the variety of food people ate, and with more kinds of foods came more different kinds of parasites living in your intestines eating your from the inside out, hooray!  Even in the Middle Ages we can tell your social class from the variety of parasite eggs in your preserved feces (the more you know!), but in the Renaissance the total could go up, and the frequency and intensity of chronic pain with it (not to mention a wider variety of horrible toxic things doctors would try to feed you as a cure; before sanitation more doctors = bad, not good). In sum, if you’re a time traveler and you’re being banished, don’t pick the Renaissance. Florence’s Gates of Paradise As for how an age so terrible to live through produced the masterpieces and innovations we still hold in awe, my ultrashort answer is that Renaissance art and culture was also a gradual ramp-up from ever-changing Medieval art and culture, and that the leaps we seem to see in the later period are the desperate measures of a desperate time. Legitimacy is a key concept here.  The secret we all know is that governments, countries, laws, they’re all just a bunch of stuff we made up.  They exist only as long as we all keep agreeing they exist, and act accordingly.  Far more than Tinkerbell, regimes and governments need us to believe in them or they die.  Sometimes this death takes the form of people just ignoring old structures, like in the Hellenic age when a remote Greek colony might hear from the founding city so infrequently that it starts ignoring the empire and just makes its own government.  A more common consequence when people stop believing in governments is that some rival will take advantage of that lack of confidence, and rise up to claim power instead, whether through an electoral primary challenge or a bloody civil war. For this reason, regimes to work hard to gain legitimacy, that is to acquire any and all things that make people agree the regime is real, and has the right to rule.  When a usurper murders the old king but marries his widow, sister, or daughter, that’s an attempt to secure legitimacy in a world where people are used to government going with blood right.  When no local royal-blood bride is available, the usurper might instead marry a princess from a famous distant kingdom, and fill his court with expensive, exotic treasures and other indications that he’s connected to foreign powers and money—this is another bid at legitimacy since it implies the new ruler has strong allies and the means to bring prosperity and trade. There are lots of other ways to project legitimacy: getting trusted local elites to work for you, getting religious leaders to bless you, publishing your pedigree (fake or real) with mighty ancestors, cracking down on crime and having showy trials, paying an astrologer to circulate your horoscope with great predictions, mounting a big parade, building an equestrian statue of yourself in the square that everyone walks past, receiving ambassadors in a showy way so everyone sees how much foreign powers honor you, repairing bridges and caring for orphans so people talk about your generosity and virtue, even a modern city funding a zoo and orchestra and art museum is that city projecting legitimacy with the trappings we associated with cultured power.  When a regime has lots of sources of legitimacy, it makes people more willing to go along with that regime continuing.  Some sources of legitimacy tie into a culture’s traditional ideas about what makes power lawful (religion, heredity, virtue, particular values), while other sources of legitimacy, like a collection of exotic animals or a fancy palace, just impress people, and make them feel that life under this regime will probably be good, and that overthrowing it would probably be difficult if it has money to throw away on palaces and elephants. Here’s Henry III of England depicted receiving the crown from two very legitimate bishops. In Richard III Shakespeare has Richard arrange to be found at prayer standing between two priests when he’s trying to convince the people to make him king — a classic bid for legitimacy which Shakespeare knows is often insincere. Thus the radical oversimplification is that, when times get desperate, those in power pour money into art, architecture, grandeur, even science, because such things can provide legitimacy and thus aid stability.  Intimidating palaces, grand oratory, epics about the great deeds of a conqueror, expensive tutors so the prince and princess have rare skills like Greek and music, even a chemical treatise whose dedication praises the Duke of Such-and-such, these were all investments in legitimacy, not fruits of peace but symptoms of a desperate time.  In an era when a book cost as much as a house (it really did!), and Florence’s Laurenziana library cost more per GDP than the Moon Landing, you don’t get that level of investment unless elites think they’re going to get something out of it.  Just as today giant corporations fund charities or space tech because they get something out of it, publicity raising their stock prices, so a mighty merchant family might repair a church or build a grand public square and put their coat of arms on it, drawing investment and intimidating rivals. Don’t YOU want a trade deal with the people who can build THAT? Culture is a form of political competition—if war is politics by other means, culture is too, but lower risk.  This too happened throughout the Middle Ages, but the Renaissance was ever-so-much-more-so in comparison, and whenever you get a combination of (A) increasing wealth and (B) increasing instability, that’s a recipe for (C) increasing art and innovation, not because people are at peace and have the leisure to do art, but because they’re desperate after three consecutive civil wars and hope they can avoid a fourth one if they can shore up the regime with a display of cultural grandeur.  The fruits fill our museums and libraries, but they aren’t relics of an age of prosperous peace, they’re relics of a lived experience which was, as I said, terrible but great. All this I’ll explore further in the book, but if you want more info in the meantime you can get an excellent overview of the period in Guido Ruggiero’s The Renaissance in Italy, and a look at how this fed philosophical innovation and birthed Renaissance humanism in James Hankins’s Virtue Politics.  For today, though, our goal isn’t to look deeply at the David, it’s to look at the glitter we just scraped off it, and to understand where that glitter comes from. Part 2: Where did the Myth Come From in the First Place? (A Renaissance Story) The moment when all Medievalists *facepalm* Whenever I’m with Medievalists and the subject turns to one of the bad things people say about the Middle Ages (dark age, backwards, superstitious, stagnant, oppressive, enemy of progress, all homogenous), I make a point of speaking up and saying, “Yeah, that’s my guys’s fault.  Sorry.”  It was a joke the first time, and it’s still half a joke, but I keep doing it because there’s this special smile under the resulting chuckle, this pause, warming, affirming, on the Medievalist’s face that says: I’ve always felt I deserved an apology from the Renaissance!  Thank you! Because the beginning of the problem was the Renaissance’s fault. Pretty-much every culture, when it tells its history, divides it into parts somehow (reigns, eras, dynasties).  These labels may not seem like a big deal, but they have a huge effect on how we imagine things.  Think of how the discourse about boomers vs. Gen-X vs. millennials affects people’s self-identities, who associates with whom, and the kinds of discourse we can have with those terms that we couldn’t have with different ones.  The lines and labels in our history are powerful.  In my Terra Ignota science fiction novels I mention that the people in my 25th century society debate whether World War I ended in 1945 or 1989, and it always blows readers’ minds for a few seconds, and then follows the reflection: yeah, I could see WWI and WWII being considered one thing, like the Wars of the Roses.  My first exposure to the way this makes your brain go *whfoooo* was as a kid and hearing Eugen Weber provocatively call WWI and WWII “The Second Thirty Years War”.  Feels weird, right?  Weird-powerful. Interesting choices made in this timeline of where to divide this timeline. Many other choices could be made. Google for “European History Timeline” and you’ll find dozens. Modern illustration of a Medieval mystery play, enacting battles between good and evil for the audience’s moral edification – just like history. People living in the European and Mediterranean Middle Ages generally (oversimplification) divided history into two parts, BC and AD, before the birth of Jesus and after.  For finer grain, you used reigns of emperors or kings, or special era names from your own region, i.e. before or after a particular event, rise, reign, or fall.  There was also a range of traditions subdividing further, such as Augustine’s six ages of the world which divided up biblical eras (Adam to Noah, Noah to Abraham, etc.), though most of those subdivisions are pre-historical, without further subdivision post Christ’s Incarnation.  The Middle Ages also had a sense of the Roman Empire as a phase in history, but it was tied in with the BC-to-AD tradition, and with ideas of Providence and a divine Plan.  Rome had not only Christianized the Mediterranean and Europe through the conversion of Constantine c. 312 CE, but authors like Dante stressed how the Empire had been the legal authority which executed Christ, God’s tool in enacting the Plan, as vital to humanity’s salvation as the nails or the cross.  Additionally, many Medieval interpreters viewed history itself as a didactic tool, designed by God for human moral education (not the discipline of history, the actual events).  In this interpretation of history, God determined everything that happens, as the author of a story determines what happens.  The events of the past and life were like the edifying pageant plays one saw at festivals: God the Scriptwriter introduces characters in turn—a king, a fool, a villain, a saint—and as we see their fates we learn valuable lessons about fickle Fortune, hypocrisy, the retribution that awaits the wicked, and the rewards beyond the trials and sufferings of the good.  The Roman Empire had been sent onto the world’s stage just the same, a tool to teach humanity about power, authority, imperial majesty, law, justice, peace, offering a model of supreme power which people could use to imagine God’s power, and many other details excitedly explored by numerous Medieval interpreters.  (Many Renaissance interpreters still view history this way, and the first who really doesn’t do it at all is Machiavelli.) The two people most directly responsible for inventing the Middle Ages are two men from Tuscany: Petrarch (Francesco Petrarca, 1304-1374), and Leonardo Bruni (1370-1444). Fresco of Petrarch Petrarch was the first person to talk about the era after the Roman empire as a separate, bad period of shadow, misery, darkness, and decay.  Petrarch gained his fame with his Italian poetry, and popularized the sonnet (though we have a long time still to wait for Shakespeare), but later in his life he was part of a circle of Italian scholars who loved, loved, loved, loved Cicero, and read his political works intensively as they thought about questions of republicanism and statecraft.  Petrarch described himself as having been born in exile.  He was born in exile in space quite literally, while his parents were in banishment, and he grew up in Avignon in the period the papacy was there in French control.  But he also considered himself an exile in time, exiled from that community of antiquity which was the true home of his spirit.  I already quoted his lament Italia Mia, and his sense of the degeneration of his era was enhanced by the feeling that France’s control of the papacy had ravaged and spoiled Rome and Italy.  He also lived through the Black Death, and lost almost all his scholar-friends in it.  Two surviving friends wrote to him after the main wave had passed to plan a precious reunion—they were attacked by bandits on the way, and one murdered, while the other escaped but was missing for many months.  You can understand why Petrarch, reading of the Pax Romana when the ancient texts claim you could walk in safety from one end of Rome’s empire to the other, might see his age as one of ash and shadow.  He projected that ash and shadow back on everything since Rome, lumping together for the first time the long sequence we now refer to as the Middle Ages. Fresco depiction of young Cicero reading in his Roman home; raising the next generation of Italy’s rulers the same way was Petrarch’s plan to save Italy and Europe from an age of ash and shadow. Petrarch, importantly, did not claim his era was already a golden age, nor did he use the word Renaissance; he claimed his era needed to have a transformation, that desperate times called for desperate measures, and that if Italy was to have any hope of healing it must look to its ancient past, to Rome, the Pax Romana, that dream age when there were no bandits on the road or pirates in the sea.  The lost arts that nurtured the age of Emperors were languishing in ancient tomes waiting to be restored if only people reached for them.  We know the Renaissance as the era that revived a lot of lost Roman technologies, geometry, engineering, large-scale bronze work, and those were important, but what Petrarch really thought would change things were people, intellectual technologies, not science or engineering tools.  Petrarch wanted the library that educated Cicero, and Seneca, and Caesar.  When we today look at ancient Rome we’re often struck most by the wicked Emperors, Caligula, Nero, the anecdotes of decadent corruption, but Petrarch instead saw the republican Brutus, who executed his own sons when they conspired to take over the state—in a world where city after city was falling to monarchal coups, and Lord Montague was used to using his great influence to make the Prince let Romeo get away with murder, the thought of Brutus putting Rome before his family felt like a miracle.  (Unhelpfully, Petrarch didn’t write a single clear treatise where he spelled this out, but if you want a sample try his letters and invectives, or for the mega-thorough scholarly version see James Hankins’ Virtue Politics). Important: even using antiquity wasn’t new in the Renaissance.  Medieval people had been reading Seneca, and Cicero, and Virgil the whole time, and imitating and reusing ancient stuff, they just used the classics differently from how Petrarch did, just as the classics are also used differently in the 17th century, and the 19th century, and today. There were some major innovations in Renaissance engagement with the classics (several stages of innovation in fact), that differentiate them from Medieval, but those are complexities for another day. Stunning portrait face of Leonardo Bruni, from his tomb in Santa Croce. Leonardo Bruni was the next step.  He was child when Petrarch died, and grew up in the era of heady excitement of trying to use classical education to create the golden age Petrarch proposed.  Bruni studied Latin with a focus (as Petrarch encouraged) on imitating ancient Latin instead of Medieval Latin whose grammar and vocabulary had evolved (as any language does) over the centuries.  Bruni served as Chancellor of Florence, and imitated ancient Roman historians in writing his History of the Florentine People, which for the first time formally divided history into three parts: ancient, middle, and modern, which we now call Renaissance.  He also filled his history with analysis and deep interpretation, which many Renaissance scholars will tell you was the first modern history, the first history of a post-classical time/place, and the first truly analytic history written since antiquity, and then Medievalists will scream at them and pile up examples of Medieval chronicles full of framing and moral analysis, which absolutely are doing sophisticated interpretive work, and vary enormously from each other, but Bruni’s is recognizably as different.  Why?  Largely because Bruni actively wanted his history to seem innovative and different, and wrote with that as a goal, in a new kind of Latin, with new structure, setting out to make something everyone would look at and say: Wow, it’s like what the Romans did! Illuminated manuscript of a French translation of Bruni’s history; every court had to have it, and make one of their own. With Bruni we had three periods—ancient, medieval, and the new age.  That new age wasn’t called rinascita until Vasari’s Lives of the Artists in 1550 (more than a century after Bruni) and renaissance proper was coined by Jules Michelet in 1855, but Bruni’s idea of three periods, and that this new one could be a golden age, caught on quickly because of its potential for… (da da da daaa!) …legitimacy!  Back then, as now, claiming that you’re the start of a new golden age is an ideal way to make your (teetering, illegitimate) regime seem exciting, full of momentum, glorious.  History-writing modeled on Bruni quickly became all the rage, and you could awe people with a history of how great your city/people/family is, get them excited about a golden age, make yourself seem legitimate.  And Bruni’s history writing had another power too. One set of events Bruni described in his Florentine History were the conquests of Gian Galeazzo Visconti the “Viper of Milan” (1351-1402), a man who lived up in every way to his badass family crest of a serpent swallowing a helpless little dude. After ambushing and supplanting his uncle, the Viper seized Milan (bribing appropriate powers to make him duke), then took Verona, Vicenza, Padua, and tried for all of northern Italy including Bologna and Florence, securing a great victory at the Battle of Casalecchio in 1402.  But then (according to Bruni) brilliant Florentine cunning arranged the would-be conqueror’s defeat and downfall.  When Bruni’s history circulated in 1444, the Viper’s grandson Duke Filippo Maria Visconti did a spit take: “What the?!  We didn’t lose that war!  Granddad dropped dead of a f*ing fever and the troops had to go home!  The Florentines never beat us in a single battle!  They can’t say won the war!”  They can.  They did. It turns out history isn’t written by the winners; history is written by the people who write histories. So, what are you going to do about it, grandson of the Viper of Milan?  There’s only one thing to do: hire one of these new classically-educated humanisty types to write a history of your city and your family framed your way, and replacing the murdered-his-uncle bribed-the-king totally-illegitimate conquest-by-force narrative with a glorious lineage that constantly kicked Florence’s ass!!  That’s what he did—that’s what everybody did, Milan, Venice, France, England, Hungary, Naples; everybody had to have a history, and all the histories claimed there had been a bad middle age, that it was over, and that we were now in the glorious classical-revival-powered new age which had the potential to surpass it thanks to the virtues and glories of [Insert Prince Here].  This is why, up in England, baby King Henry VI’s uncle Duke Humphrey of Gloucester tried to hire Leonardo Bruni to come to England and work for him, and write a history that would shore up the tenuous Lancastrian claim to the throne (we’re entering the Wars of the Roses here).  And this is why, while Bruni stayed in Florence, another major Florentine figure Poggio Bracciolini actually was lured by the high pay to go to England and work for Humphrey’s rival Cardinal Beaufort.  And all these histories pick and choose details to make the current regime/ruler look great and legitimate, at the expense of making the newly-invented middle age look bad. No no no no, please, just no… This is why all Medievalists, deep down inside, know they deserve an apology from the Renaissance. One attempt at a solution is dropping the term Renaissance, but that doesn’t actually solve the problem, since it leaves us with antiquity and a period from then to… what?  Is the dividing line the Enlightenment?  Industrialization?  Colonialism?  The Industrial Revolution?  The Agricultural Revolution?  The French Revolution?  WWI?  No matter how late you push the line, any of these divisions is still accepting Bruni’s ancient-middle-modern division, and involves making a claim about what begins the modern.  Normal parlance in history now is “early modern” which begins with [insert-scholarly-squabble-here] and ends roughly with the French Revolution, which is generally agreed to kick off “modern” proper.  While “early modern” does avoid accepting claim that the Middle Ages were bad and needed a rebirth, and I use it myself, I also think it’s a dreadful term, since (A) it’s confusing (“early modern” sounds like the Crystal Palace, not Shakespeare’s Globe), and (B) the term actively worsens the degree to which your selected start date is a judgment call about what makes us modern.  Because the real problem with the myth of the bad Middle Ages versus golden Renaissance is not what Petrarch and Bruni created within the Renaissance itself—it’s what happened later to entangle both terms with an equally problematic third term: modern. Part 3: Why is the Myth of a Renaissance Golden Age Retold so Much? (a post-Renaissance story) The thing about golden ages—and this is precisely what Petrarch and Bruni tapped into—is that they’re incredibly useful to later regimes and peoples who want to make glorifying claims about themselves.  If you present yourself, your movement, your epoch, as similar to a golden age, as the return of a golden age, as the successor to a golden age, those claims are immensely effective in making you seem important, powerful, trustworthy.  Legitimate. In sum, one of the most powerful tools for legitimacy is invoking a past golden age.  Under my rule we will be great like X was great!  Whether it’s a giant golden age (Rooooome!) or a tiny golden age (the US 1950s!), if you can claim to be bringing it back, you can make a very clear, appealing case for why you should have power.  This claim can be made by a king, a duke, a ruling council, a political party, an individual, or a whole movement.  It can be made explicitly in rhetoric (I am the new Napoleon!) or implicitly by borrowing the decorative motifs, vocabulary, and trappings of an era.  An investment banking service that uses a Roman coin profile as its logo, names its different mutual funds after Roman legions, and has a pediment and columns on its corporate headquarters is trying to project legitimacy from the idea of antiquity as a golden age of power and stability. The newborn United States of America when it decided to make the Washington Monument be a giant obelisk, that was another bid at legitimacy and projecting power by invoking the golden ages of ancient Egypt and conquering Rome, combined in the Washington Monument’s case with other things like, instead of the traditional gold tip on top, using high-tech more-expensive-than-gold aluminum, mixing golden age with power claims about wealth and science. So… Painting of the Gallery of Cornelis van der Geest, by Willem van Haecht, 1628 …because the Renaissance had called itself a golden age, by the 17th century it had joined the list of epochs that you can invoke to gain legitimacy, and has been invoked that way many times.  This is why 18th and especially 19th and earlier 20th century governments and elites raced to buy up Italian Renaissance art treasures and display them in their homes and museums.  This is why Mussolini, while he mostly invoked imperial Rome, used the Renaissance too, and even made special arrangements to meet Hitler inside the Vasari Corridor in Florence to show off the art treasures of the Uffizi.  And this is why the US Library of Congress building is painted all over inside with imitations of Renaissance classicizing frescos and allegorical figures in Renaissance style even though the quotations they include and values they celebrate are largely not Renaissance. Mussolini takes Hitler on a tour of the Uffizi One consequence of golden ages being so powerful is that powers squabble over them: “I’m the true successor of [XXX]!”  “No, I’m the true successor!”  You see this in the fascinating modern day dispute over the name Macedonia in which both Greece and the country now called North Macedonia both want to be seen as the land of Alexander the Great, and argued over the name tooth and nail, dragging in both the UN and NATO.  Since golden ages are mythical constructions (the events are real but the golden age-ness is mythmaking) they’re easy to redefine to serve claims of true successor status—all you have to do is claim that the true heart that made the golden age great was X, and the true spirit of X flourishes most in you.  Any place (past or present) that calls itself a new Jerusalem, new Rome, or new Athens is doing this, usually accompanied by a narrative about how the original has been ruined by something: “Greece today is stifled by [insert flaw here: conquest, superstition, socialism, lack of socialism, a backwards Church, whatever], but the true spirit of Plato, Socrates and the Examined Life flourish in [Whateverplace]!” Brutus or Caesar, you can pick either one! Ancient Rome is particularly easy to use this way because Rome had several phases (republic, empire, Christian Rome) so if some rival has done a great job declaring itself the New Roman Empire you can follow up by saying the Empire was the corrupt decadent period and the Roman Republic was the true Rome!  Simply quote Cicero and talk about wicked emperors and you can appropriate the good Rome and characterize your rivals as the bad Rome.  If republic, empire, and Christian Rome are all claimed, you can do something more creative like the 19th century romantic movement which claimed the archaic pastoral Rome of Virgil’s Georgics, replacing pediments and legionary eagles with garlands and shepherds and claiming a mythic golden age no one had been using lately. The same is true of claiming Renaissance.  If you can make a claim about what made the Renaissance a golden age, and claim that you are the true successor of that feature of the Renaissance, then you can claim the Renaissance as a whole.  This is made easier by the fact that “the Renaissance” is incredibly vague.  When did it start? 1400? 1350? 1500? 1250? 1550? 1348? When did it end? 1600? 1650? 1700?  You can find all these dates if you dig through books about “the Renaissance” written in different countries and different fields (art history, literary history).  I pointed out that Petrarch’s Italia Mia is as far from Ercole’s Bentivoglio’s letter to Machiavelli as Napoleon’s rise from Yuri Gagarin’s space flight, but even at Machiavelli we’re still only half-way through the large, vague period that different people label Renaissance.  On my own university campus, if I drop by different departments and ask colleagues when Renaissance begins, I get 1200 or 1250 from the Italian lit department (some of whom say Machiavelli is already “modern”), but in the English building I might get 1450 or even 1500.  I think drawing a line after Black Death makes sense for Italy at least, or maybe at 1400, but there are plenty of counter-arguments, and people on campus who identify as Medievalists who study things later than some things I work on.  I think it’s great for Medieval and Renaissance to overlap, since I—looking mainly forward—ask different questions about someone like Petrarch from the questions my Medievalist colleagues ask.  The only “wrong” answer to where the line falls, in my opinion, is to believe there is a clear line. And if we zoom into this long, vague period, when was the “high Renaissance” i.e. the best part, the most characteristic part?  If you ask a political scientist it’s usually the very early 1400s, when Bruni and other innovative political thinkers were writing; if you ask an art historian it’s the decades right after 1500 when ¾ of the Ninja Turtles overlapped; if you ask a theater scholar it’s Shakespeare who was born fully 200 years later than Bruni and his peers discussing politics.  It all depends on what you think defines the Renaissance, so if you have a different focus then different dates feel like periphery or core. So, just as when we invoke Rome we can pick republican Rome, imperial Rome, pastoral Rome, Christian Rome, the conquering Rome of Julius Caesar or the peaceful Rome of the Pax Romana, similarly there are a huge range of Renaissances one can invoke: Bruni’s, Raphael’s, Machiavelli’s, Luther’s, Shakespeare’s.  But choosing your Renaissance is an especially potent question because of… (drumroll please)… the X-Factor. Okay, deep breath. Sherlock Holmes (Jeremy Brett Version) with his pocket Petrarch After the Renaissance, in the period vaguely from 1700 to 1850, everyone in Europe agreed the Renaissance had been a golden age of art, music, and literature specifically.  Any nation that wanted to be seen as powerful had to have a national gallery showing off Renaissance (mainly Italian) art treasures, and capital buildings with Renaissance neoclassical motifs, while an individual with elite ambitions had to know classicizing Latin, and a bit of Greek, and have opinions about Raphael, Titian, Petrarch, and the polyphonic motets of Lassus.  Seriously: in the original Doyle Holmes stories, so 1850-1910, after having Watson establish Holmes’s “Knowledge of literature—nil. Philosophy—nil.” still has Holmes carry a pocket Petrarch and write a monograph on the polyphonic motets of Lassus, because that’s what a smart, impressive person did in 1850.   This also meant that Renaissance art treasures were protected and preserved more than Medieval ones—if you’re valorizing the Renaissance you’re usually criticizing the Middle Ages in contrast, so these generations learned to think of Renaissance art as good taste and the periods on both sides (Medieval and baroque) as bad taste, and a lot of great Medieval art was left to gather dust, or rot, or was even actively destroyed, since nothing invokes the Renaissance like sweeping away the “bad” medieval.  As a result, the Renaissance became a self-fulfilling source base: go to a museum today and you see much more splendid Renaissance art than Medieval, leading to the natural conclusion that the Renaissance produced more art in general, but Middle Ages did make splendid art, it’s just that later centuries didn’t preserve it as carefully, so less survives, and what survives is more likely to be in storage than in the main gallery. The transition from people being excited about Renaissance art and culture to being excited about the Renaissance as an era came in the mid-1800s, primarily with the work of Swiss historian Jacob Burkhardt, and his 1869 The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy.  It’s a gorgeous read, unskimmably rich prose, and Burkhardt’s work was a major breakthrough moment for the practice of history as a whole, because he showed how you could write a history, not of a country or a person, but of a culture, discussing the practices and ideas of an era, examining art and artists side-by-side with authors, soldiers, and statesmen as examples of people of a period and the way they thought, acted, and lived.  The book pioneered cultural history, the practice of trying to study societies and their characteristics, acknowledging the interrelationship of politics with art and culture instead of examining them separately.  Cultural history remains a major field, and one where some of the best work on once-neglected topics like women, pop culture, and non-elites has flourished.  But… Burkhardt was also the main figure who popularized the terms “modernity” and “modern.”  He argued that the Renaissance was the birth of “modern man,” and that modern man was defined by a powerful sense of human excellence and human potential.  According to Burkhardt, the core of this change—the spirit of the Renaissance which sparked the triumphant path of progress toward modernity—was the rise of individualism.  As he says in the beginning of Part II: In the Middle Ages both sides of human consciousness—that which was turned within as that which was turned without—lay dreaming or half awake beneath a common veil. The veil was woven of faith, illusion, and childish prepossession, through which the world and history were seen clad in strange hues. Man was conscious of himself only as member of a race, people, party, family, or corporation—only through some general category. In Italy this veil first melted into air; an objective treatment and consideration of the state and of all the things of this world became possible. The subjective side at the same time asserted itself with corresponding emphasis; man became a spiritual individual, and recognized himself as such. The Medievalists reading this are gnashing their teeth, and yes, this moment is core to the persistence of the myth of the bad, backward, stagnant, sleepy middle ages, and equally core to the myth of the Renaissance Man: awake, ambitious, aware of his own power, rational, ripping through the cobwebs of superstition, desirous of remaking the world but also of intentionally fashioning him or herself into something splendid and excellent.  A human being who realizes human beings can be their own masterpieces. In the mid-19th-century, when Burkhardt wrote, Europe was very enamored of individualism, of new democratic ideas of government, of nationalism and ideas of individual consciousness and national consciousness, and of the notions of genius, both genius individuals and the geniuses of peoples.  Thus, Burkhardt’s claim that the Renaissance was born from individualism gave all sorts of 19th century movements the ability to claim the Renaissance golden age as an ancestor.  Germany, Britain, the young United States, despite having little to do with Italy, they could all claim to be the true inheritors of Renaissance greatness if they could claim that individualism and the opportunity to be a self-made man prospered more truly among their peoples than in Italy. But there was more: by claiming that the Renaissance—and all its glittering art and innovation—was caused by individualism, Burkhardt was really advancing a claim about the nature of modernity.  Individualism was an X-Factor which had appeared and made a slumbering world begin to move, sparking the step-by-step advance that led humanity from stagnant Medieval mud huts to towers of glass and iron—and by implication it would also define our path forward to an even more glorious future.  In other words, the X-Factor that sparked the Renaissance was the defining spirit of modernity.  If individualism was responsible, not only for the Renaissance, but for the wonders of modernity, then logically those regimes of Burkhardt’s day which most facilitated the expression of individualism could claim to be the heart of human progress and to hold the keys to the future; those nations which did not advance individualism (where socialism prospered, for example, or “collectivism” which was how 19th century Europe characterized most non-Western societies) were still the slumbering Middle Ages, in need of being awakened to their true potential by those nations which did possess the X-Factor of human progress. I hope you winced a few times in the previous paragraph, recognizing toxic 19th century problems (eurocentrism, orientalism, “White Man’s Burden” thinking), as well as basic historical errors (spoiler: you can find plenty of individualism in Medieval texts, and lots of things that are absolutely not individualism in Renaissance ones).  But those specifics aren’t the big problem.  The big problem was how entrancing the idea of an X-Factor was, the notion that there is one true innovative spirit which defines both Renaissance and modern, and advances in a grand and exponential curve from Petrarch through Leonardo and Machiavelli on to [insert modern hero here].  Thus Burkhardt birthed what I call the quest for the Renaissance X-Factor.  Because when the first scholars disagreed with Burkhardt, they didn’t objcet to the idea that the Renaissance was caused by a great defining X-Factor, they loved that idea, they simply argued about what exactly the X-Factor was. (Note: If you haven’t read it already I recommend you also look at my post On Progress and Historical Change, discussing the history of ideas of progress.) Thanks to Burkhardt, the Renaissance came to be defined as the period after Medieval but before Enlightenment when something changed and pushed things toward modernity—the moment that the defining spirit of modernity appeared.  From that point on, claiming you were the successor to the Renaissance didn’t just mean claiming a golden age like Rome, it let you also claim that modernity itself was somehow especially yours.  If you could argue that the reason the Renaissance was great was that it did the thing you do, then you are the heart of modernity and progress, even of the future, while those who don’t celebrate that spirit are the enemies of progress.  Thus every time someone proposed a new X-Factor, a different explanation for what made Renaissance different from Medieval, that made it possible to make new claims about the nature of modernity, and which nations or movements have it right.  This model even lets one claim the future: the X-Factor was born in the Renaissance, grew in the Enlightenment and in modernity, and is the key to unlocking the next glorious age of human history as it unlocked both Renaissance and modern.  This lets you advance teleological arguments about the inevitable triumph of [democracy, nationalism, atheism, capitalism, whatever].   It’s a version of history that’s not only legitimizing but comforting, since it lets you feel you know where history is headed, what will happen, who will win. Savonarola is one of many Renaissance figures appropriated by many later movements, including revolutionaries in the Italian unification movement. To give specific examples, if we’re in the middle of the Cold War, and an influential historian publishes a book arguing that the X-Factor that sparked the Renaissance was double-entry bookkeeping, i.e. the rise of banking and the merchant class, America can say: “The Renaissance X-Factor was the birth of capitalism!  The fact that it was a golden age proves capitalism will make a golden age too, and the true successor of this golden age is our alliance of modern capitalist regimes!”  If, on the other hand, we’re in a nationalist wave, say in 1848 or 1920, and someone argues that the X-Factor that sparked the Renaissance was the call for national unity articulated in Petrarch’s Italia Mia or Savonarola’s sermons (this is Pasquale Villari), and that what ended the Renaissance golden age was when Italy was conquered and divvied up among the Bourbons and Hapsburgs, then the Renaissance can be claimed as a predecessor by the Italian unification movement, the German unification movement, any nationalist movement anywhere can claim that uniting peoples into nations is what drives modernity.  If we claim the Renaissance was birthed by the rise of secular thought, that Renaissance geniuses were the first people to break through the bonds of superstition, and that Leonardo and Machiavelli were secret atheists (this is Auguste Comte), then we can claim that secularization and the secular state is the heart of human progress and modernity.  And if someone claims the X-factor was republican proto-democratic thought, the political writings and discourse of civic participation unique to the Italian city republics, Florence, Venice (this is Hans Baron), then we can claim that republican democracy is the key to human progress, that modern democracies are the heart of modernity, and everything else is backwards, outside, Medieval, bad, and needs to be replaced. To this day, every time someone proposes a new X-Factor for the Renaissance—even if it’s a well-researched and plausible suggestion—it immediately gets appropriated by a wave of people & powers who want to claim they are the torch-bearers of that great light that makes the human spirit modern.  And every time someone invokes a Renaissance X-Factor, the corresponding myth of the bad Middle Ages becomes newly useful as a way to smear rivals and enemies.  As a result, for 160 years and counting, an endless stream of people, kingdoms, political parties, art movements, tech firms, banks, all sorts of powers have gained legitimacy by retelling the myth of the bad Middle Ages and golden Renaissance, with their preferred X-Factor glittering at its heart. Recommended reading for more, or see my page of History book recommendations We scholars do our best to battle this, to introduce a complex and un-modern Renaissance, but the very usefulness of the myth guarantees that it will be repeated much more broadly than our no-fun efforts to correct it.  A lot of Renaissance historians today reject the idea of a single X-Factor and try instead to talk about combinations of mixing factors.  Many of us also try to argue that the Renaissance was not fundamentally modern, that it was its own distinctly un-modern thing.  But it’s a hard sell, because the narrative of a special spirit launching us from Petrarch to the Moon Landing is enchanting, and because a complicated, messy, un-modern Renaissance snatches away the golden Renaissances most people meet first.  Nobody in this century has read about the French Invasion of 1494, or even about the Guelphs and Ghibellines, before meeting the genius cults of Leonardo and Michelangelo. Scraping the glitter off to reveal the imperfect and violent David underneath is an assault on our understandings of our past and present, on what it means to be ourselves, even on our sense of where the future is heading.  People find that unsettling.  And people who look to Renaissance celebrities as role models and intellectual ancestors don’t like to hear about their rough un-modern sides.  So people get hostile, or unsettled, they keep telling the myths, and use cherry picked sources to glob the glitter-paint back on.  It’s not always done in bad faith—if from early childhood you’ve always learned the Renaissance was sparkling and golden, and you see a bare patch where the glitter has come off, of course you’ll think that bare patch is the error, that the still-sparkly parts are the real thing.  You treat the oddball patch as damage, and keep believing what that documentary or museum label told you years ago when you saw your first Renaissance masterpiece and fell in love.  So the myth persists, and for every attempt to correct it we’re up against a dozen tour guide scripts, and TV specials, and corporate statements, and outdated textbooks, and new books (fiction and nonfiction alike) that glob the glitter on.  So you can understand why, from time to time, Renaissance and Medieval specialists alike just have to stop and scream like Sisyphus. David gets his regular scrub. He needs it. Conclusion: We Should Aim for Something Better than the Renaissance This, in not-very-brief, is why we keep telling the myth of the golden Renaissance, and bad Middle Ages. The Wheel of Fortuna, which turns, elevating men from beggar, to townsman, to king, then falling again in a chaotic cycle representing life. Notice the ABSENCE of an idea of the world getting better OVERALL. Now, let’s look again at our other starting question: “If the Black Death caused the Renaissance will the COVID pandemic cause a golden age?”  You see the problems with the question now: the Black Death didn’t cause the Renaissance, not by itself, and the Renaissance was not a golden age, at least not the kind that you would want to live in, or to see your children live in.  But I do think that both Black Death and Renaissance are useful for us to look at now, not as a window on what will happen if we sit back and let the gears of history grind, but as a window on how vital action is. The Black Death first: it didn’t cause the Renaissance, no one thing caused the Renaissance, it was a conjunction of many gradual and complicated changes accumulating over centuries (banking, legal reform, centralization of power, urbanization, technology, trade) which came together to make an age like the Medieval but ever-so-much-more-so.  The idea that the Black Death caused a prosperity boom comes from old studies which showed that wages went way up after the Black Death, creating new possibilities for laborers to gain in wealth and rise in status (like the golden 1950s).  But those were small studies from a few places (mainly bits of England), and we have newer studies now that show that wages only rose in a few places, that in other places wages didn’t rise, or actually went down, or that they started to rise but elites cracked down with new laws to control labor, creating (among other things) the first workhouses, laws limiting freedom of movement, and other new forms of unfreedom and control.  What the Black Death really caused was change.  It caused regime changes, instability letting some monarchies or oligarchies rise, or fall.  It caused policy and legal changes, some oppressive, some liberating.  And it caused economic changes, some regions or markets collapsing, and others growing. It’s Viking time! If you really want to know what COVID will do, I think the place to look is not Renaissance Italy, but the Viking settlements in Greenland, which vanished around 1410.  Did they all die of the plague?  No.  We’re pretty sure they never got the plague, they were too isolated.  But the Greenland settlements’ economy had long depended on the walrus trade: they hunted walruses and sold the ivory and skins, and ships would come from Norway or Iceland to trade for walrus, bringing goods one couldn’t make in Greenland, like iron, or fine fabric, or wheat.  But after 1348 the bottom dropped out of the walrus market, and the trading ships stopped coming.  By 1400 no ships had visited Greenland for years except the few that were blown off-course by storm.  And meanwhile there were labor shortages and vacant farms on the once-crowded mainland.  So we think the Greenland Vikings emigrated, asked those stray ships to take them with them back to Europe, as many as could fit, abandoning one life to start another.  That’s what we’ll see with COVID: collapse and growth, busts for one industry, booms for another, sudden wealth collecting in some hands, while elsewhere whole communities collapse, like Flint Michigan, and Viking Greenland, and the many disasters in human history which made survivors abandon homes and villages, and move elsewhere.  A lot of families and communities will lose their livelihoods, their homes, their everythings, and face the devastating need to start again.  And as that happens, we’ll see different places enact different laws and policies to deal with it, just like after the Black Death.  Some places/regimes/policies will increase wealth and freedom, while others will reduce it, and the complicated world will go on being complicated. That’s why I say we should aim to do better than the Renaissance. Because we can.  We have so much they didn’t.  We know so much. For one thing, we know how pandemics work.  We know about germs, viruses, contagion, hand-washing, sanitation, lowering the curve.  We can make plans, take action that does something.  Forget 1348, even in 1918 we didn’t understand how to treat influenza, how it moved, and hand washing was still controversial. 1918 was a US election year but we didn’t discuss delaying or changing the election, there was nothing we could do to make it safer, we didn’t know about six-feet-apart, or sanitizing voting booths, or have the infrastructure to consider vote-by-mail, all we could do was let men (women still had two more years to wait) vote and die.  We’ve come a long way. Suffragettes at the 1918 election. This year, 2020, this is the first time in the history of this planet that any species has faced a pandemic knowing what it is, and how to take effective action.  We aren’t taking perfect action, and we absolutely should be criticizing and condemning the many flaws—some small, some huge—in how it’s being dealt with, but there is real, efficacious action we can take.  As an historian, not just of the plague of 1348, but of  the plagues of 1435, and 1485, and 1494, and 1503, and 1596, and 1630, and 1656, what I see is those many generations who not only had to live through this over and over, but who had no hope that their children would ever be free of it.  We know about vaccines, and that we’ll make one—it’ll take a while, and we’ll mess up various ways along the way, but none of us is afraid our grandchildren will grow up spending one year in ten locked up in their homes like this as COVID-19 spreads; we will solve it.  We know we’ll solve it, and any other age in history would treasure that confidence like miracle.  Because all Petrarch could say after losing his world in 1348 was that, the next time plague comes back, we should console ourselves by thinking of it as dying with much good company. We know about mental health now too.  We’re talking about the mental health crisis of COVID, the mental health costs of fear, poverty, racial injustice—in 1918 we were still excited by electroshock, and debating the radical new idea that outpatient psych treatment might be a thing, instead of doing only institutionalization.  We have the language to talk about the mental cost of crisis, and that language alone opens so many possibilities for helping, acting, aiding that previous eras never had.  Without the concept, we couldn’t start to try to treat it—now we can. And we have more language: social safety net, social welfare, social services, concepts for thinking how state and society can put structures in place to relieve human suffering.  We have economics now, not the kind of economics that’s trying to prognosticate the stock market, the basic kind with terms like GDP, and unemployment rate, and wealth gap, and retirement age, and inflation.  There were economies in 1348, and even social services, hospitals, orphanages, city grain supplies, but we didn’t have a science for discussing it, vast banks of data comparing how different systems work, or help, or harm.  After the Black Death when different places tried different policies for their recovery, they didn’t have comparisons, examples—we do.  We won’t be guessing in the dark when each nation decides its recovery plan for this pandemic—we won’t be omniscient, but even partial knowledge makes us powerful.  That raises the stakes. Youth climate strikers in New York City, featured in an article in Forbes Because, like after 1348, there is about to be big change.  There are many options before us, different things that states can do post-COVID, some of which will help with poverty, empower labor, lend a helping hand to those exhausted Greenland Vikings as they start again, and there are other things states can do that will instead widen the gaps, entrench elites, help the rich get richer and see the disempowered locked more inescapably into modern versions of workhouses.  Different places will make different choices.  Some places will see regime changes, others just policy shifts, but there aren’t vast wheels of history that lock a pandemic into automatically yielding a boom or bust.  There is no automatic outcome.  Rather, all nations in the world are about to make a set of choices which will have a far larger, deeper impact on the next decades, on lives, rights, options, everything, than the normal choices states make in a normal year.  The stakes are higher.  Unlike in 1348 we have a lot of knowledge, answers, options, concepts we could try like safety nets, or UBI, or radical free markets, many very different things.  Which means that acting now, demanding now, voting, pushing, proposing change, we’re shaping policies that will affect our big historical trajectory more than normal—a great chance to address and finally change systemic inequalities, or to let them entrench.   There is no predetermined outcome of pandemic; pandemic is a hallway leading to a room where something big is going to be decided—human beings decide. I love space exploration. I’ve written novels about it, and a song that makes everyone cry, I make myself tear up thinking about it all the time, especially civilian spaceflight and the hope that this chapter of history might be advanced by curiosity, teamwork, and human hope, not war or competition.  But after looking forward to it for so long, the recent SpaceX launch was the first I’ve watched in a long time without tearing up.  Because watching a space ship launch while looters are smashing shops outside my window (and cops ignoring them in favor of harassing peaceful protestors & giving carte blanche to the gunwielding vigilante on the corner) feels a lot like Leonardo painting the Mona Lisa while cities around were literally burning (and rich merchants’ private goons guarding their wealth & allies as faction dictated).  This year, this specific year, 2020, with the world shut down by plague, and civil strife, and fire in the streets, and teetering distrust in governments, this is the first time our present has reminded me of the Renaissance.  But we aren’t the Renaissance—we have social science, and efficacious medicine, and the Enlightenment under our belts, when we learned we can analyze our laws and institutions, and step by step replace them with better ones.  We aim for better. At the Renaissance Society of America Conference some years ago, two scholar friends got into a debate about whether Machiavelli’s world was fundamentally pre-modern, different from our own, or whether fundamentally it faced the same problems we do.  Responding to the claim that the Renaissance was far more violent than our present, the advocate of Renaissance-as-modern quoted the statistic that modern Chicago had as many murders every year as Renaissance Florence.  The rebuttal that surged in my mind was that the population of Florence was less than 100K, so Chicago’s millions have far fewer murders per capita, but the other speaker had a far better answer.  We’re working to change that murder rate.  We study it, understand it, plan interventions, act.  We believe it’s a problem we can solve, should solve, that citizen and state should act, and if the state will not the state should change.  We have policy studies, plans, alternatives. Voltaire, 1763 “Treatise on Tolerance,” written in his outrage over the judicial murder of Jean Calas. Petrarch wanted to end the cruel wars for light causes that were wounding Italy, but had no plan beyond sending his poem out into the world, and urging elites to have their kids read Cicero. Machiavelli also wanted to end the cruel wars for light causes, and seeing that reading Cicero had failed he proposed a new way of evaluating history, collecting examples of what worked and didn’t in the past, basing our statecraft and actions on them so the next time we try things we’ll choose more wisely.  It was the birth of social science.  It took us a long time for us to get good at it, to turn the observations in The Prince into big databases and systematic studies, just as it took a long time for medicine to get from the four humors to our confidence that we can make a vaccine, but we can make one.  We can make good social policy.  Will we do it perfectly?  No.  Many bad policies will be advanced, just as vaccines and treatments will be distributed unfairly and slowed down by bigotry and selfishness.  But we can do it, we have tools, as real in our hands and libraries as the knowledge of vaccines is real—tools Machiavelli and Petrarch would have given anything to have.  We can aim for better than another Renaissance. Let’s try.   Share

By José Manuel Serrano Esparza. SPANISH VERSION Thirty years have elapsed since the death on March 14, 1980, of a great man, Félix Rodríguez de la Fuente, near the Bering Sea, in an aircraft accident, when the Cessna 185 plane in which he was flying along with Teodoro Roa García, Alberto Mariano Huéscar (both of them being camera operators, focusers, photography directors and supervisors of the choosing of lenses and emulsions, together with the lighting, with Alberto having started as Teodoro´s assistant in 1974) and the American pilot Warren Dodson, crashed against the snowed ground twenty kilometers in the south of the Eskimo village of Shaktoolik (northwest of Alaska), while they were shooting one of the stretches of the Iditarod Trail Sled Dog Race, the most famous competition of this kind in the world, covering 1,200 miles between Anchorage and Nome. During twenty years of impressive activity between 1960 and 1980 (beginning with his famous radio broadcast programmes which caused a sensation through the first half of sixties - along with his first TV collaborations in the program Fin de Semana, with a space devoted to Nature which was offered live from the TVE studios in Paseo de La Habana-, becoming the link between Spanish villages and big cities in the maelstrom of the rural exodus of millions of people searching for better living conditions as new urbanites, and following with his fifteen consecutive years working making audiovisual productions for TVE until his untimely death in Alaska in 1980, being 52 years old), Félix Rodríguez de la Fuente, currently considered thirty years after his death the most important naturalist and zoologist maker of documentary films on animals and wild life of all time along with Jacques Cousteau (a personal friend of his, in the same way as Conrad Lorenz) and Richard Attenborough, created the astounding figure of 500 documentary films for 10 TV series, some of them legendary and internationally acclaimed like Planeta Azul (1970-1973), Fauna Salvaje, Fauna Ibérica, El Hombre y la Tierra (1974-1980), etc, that won great quantity of accolades and international awards, foreseeing in decades the current worldwide global ecologist concern. EL HOMBRE Y LA TIERRA, A WORLD HERITAGE TV SERIES This mythical image of an Iberian wolf running at twilight and belonging to El Hombre y La Tierra TVE series, enhanced by the legendary musical score created by Antón García Abril, became the hallmark of Félix Rodríguez de La Fuente´s flagship production and literally stuck millions and millions of people to the screen all over the world, with a total of 124 chapters filmed in Spain (92), Venezuela (18) and Canada (14). Incredibly, 30 years after the death of the Spanish legendary naturalist, turned into great harbinger and standard- bearer of Ecologist Movement, this amazing production entirely shot in 35 mm with the cream of professional Mitchell and Arriflex cinematographic cameras and Carl Zeiss and Angenieux lenses available during seventies, goes on currently being in the top ranking of sales, now digitally remastered in DVD, frame by frame, both in image and sound, from the original 35 mm developed chemical emulsion colour negatives. Besides, Félix Rodríguez de la Fuente, a tremendous driving force in himself regarding everything he did and featuring incredible strength, energy and versatility enabling him tackling the most manifold tasks at top-notch level, was the founder of the Spanish delegation of World Wildlife Fund and implemented campaigns against pollution, against the exsiccation of the National Park of Tablas of Daimiel, against the extinction of the asturcon horse, etc, also being a diehard activist against the slaughtering of whales because of commercial interests. Likewise, the unforgettable Félix Rodríguez de la Fuente, guiding beacon and human icon for thousands and thousands of biologists, naturalists, zoologists, anthropologists, etc, both before and after his demise, not only in Spain but all over the world, was decisive in the fulfilment of the protection and survival of five wonderful species menaced with extinction: the Peregrine Falcon, the Royal Eagle, the Imperial Eagle, the Iberian Wolf and the Iberian Lynx. IMAGE QUALITY AND FILMING PARAMETERS COMPARABLE TO THE BEST PRODUCTIONS OF HOLLYWOOD CINEMATOGRAPHIC INDUSTRY On the other hand, as quoted by Kennart Smart (Director of National Geographic Nature Unit) Félix Rodríguez de la Fuente was the first naturalist pioneering the use of professional 35 mm movie cameras (until then the highest qualitative image levels in this domain were attained by 16 mm Bolex movie cameras with Kern Switar and Angenieux lenses) for making documentary films on animals in their environment, achieving to tell stories on animal behaviour that hadn´t been told ever before, and getting a sharpness, lack of grain and sharpness that marked a turning point in this scope, clearly beating even The Living Desert (1953) - a famous Walt Disney Productions 69 minutes documentary film on nature and fauna directed by James Algar and shot with ISO 12 16 mm Kodachrome film and Technicolor system on desert areas of USA, under a scorching sun, and whose remarkable definition made possible acceptable blow-ups to 35 mm for theatre projections-, and The Vanishing Prairie (1954), another outstanding 71 minutes Walt Disney documentary film entirely shot in 35 mm also in Technicolor system- that had been the reference in image quality regarding wildlife and nature films until the arrival of El Hombre y la Tierra, whose chapters were 100% shot with professional 35 mm cinematographic chemical emulsions between 1974 and 1980. ´The movies on Wildlife and Nature filmed by Dr. Félix Rodríguez de la Fuente surprised us and drew our attention, because both the image and sound quality was fantastic. National Geographic worked with 16 mm cameras, and sometimes with Super 16 mm ones. It was apparent that Félix worked with very advanced and extraordinarily elaborate cinematographic techniques ´ Kennart Smart, Director of National Geographic Nature Unit. Félix Rodríguez de la Fuente always strove after attaining the most tremendous levels of image quality feasible at his time, on a par with the most prominent Hollywood productions, using heavy 35 mm Mitchell and Arriflex professional cameras connected to the cream of Carl Zeiss and Angenieux cinematographic lenses and the best chemical emulsions available then, making strenuous efforts to take different very heavy cameras up to specific locations from which filming his mythical productions. One of them, El Hombre y La Tierra, was unanimously chosen in 2000 as the best TVE production in history by the Spanish Academy of Sciencies and Arts, and became quickly a world referent, being distributed in different languages to a lot of countries in which it often reached peak audiences, as happened in United States, where it was number one in the top ranking of documentary films broadcast on TV for millions of people, subsequently getting even further international fame and recognition, winning in 1975 the Great Prize of Montecarlo Rainiero Prince for the chapter titled "Prisoners of the Wood", the II Great Prize of Paris de L´Emision Scientifique de Television Centre National de la Recherche in 1977 for the chapter titled "The Social Hunter", the II Great Prize of Paris de L´Emision Scientifique de Television Centre National de la Recherche for the chapter titled "The Wise Vulture" in 1978 along with the Ondas, Antena de Oro and Golden TP 1976 to the Best Spanish National TV program. Félix Rodríguez de la Fuente shaking hands with another world class naturalist: Jacques Cousteau. Both of them established a sincere friendship and mutual admiration. Suffice it to say that there were some directors of both TV and Salvat Ediciones Editorial in Spain who had the chance of watching projected inside a cinematographic room on a screen the 35 mm bobbins shot by Félix Rodríguez de la Fuente team in the jungle of Venezuela and they all coincided: those wonderful images showed virtually unbeatable resolving power, contrast, color depth and visual impact, it all being enhanced by the accuracy of the world class focuser Teodoro Roa, who was at the moment one of the few professional TVE camera operators specialized on filming animals. Dr. Félix Rodríguez de la Fuente and the camera operator Teodoro Roa. Félix Rodríguez de la Fuente, Teodoro Roa and Alberto Mariano Huéscar. And they were right, because twenty six years had to elapse until the appearance of the high definition Heligimbal camera (able to turn 360º and featuring a very high quality zoom allowing to zoom in up to a distance of one kilometer with utter stability) introduced by the BBC in the first chapter of his television series Planet Earth in 2006 for somebody offering documentary films on wildlife and nature featuring comparable levels of spectacularity and innovation to those attained by Félix Rodríguez de la Fuente in its famous TV series El Hombre y La Tierra, though in terms of image quality, colour depth and above all impact, some Félix´s documentary series, above all El Hombre y La Tierra (both the chapters made in Spain and South America) shot with chemical 35 mm emulsion with Mitchell BNC and Arriflex cinematographic professional cameras won´t probably ever be beaten, thanks to its huge adaptability to any type of digital format that can appear in future, as was recently proved with the new DVD complete edition made by Divisa Ediciones - including all the chapters - of the aforementioned El Hombre y La Tierra series, with digitally remastered image by means of a last generation professional film scanner from the original 35 mm Kodak colour film reels developed in photographic laboratory during seventies and the four first months of 1980 and which were wisely kept by Genoveve Parmentier during almost thirty years, which has allowed through a highly updated digital technology a quantum leap in quality of image and sound (also remastered in a digital way from the excellent original Hi-Fi monophonic takes) in comparison with previous editions of El Hombre y La Tierra sold in analog VHS tape or the available youtube images, and the chance of relishing a terrific and fascinating audiovisual experience with any DVD or compatible Blu-ray player. THE DIGITAL IMAGE AND SOUND RESTORATION AND REMASTERING ON DVD OF EL HOMBRE Y LA TIERRA TV SERIES MADE BY DIVISA EDICIONES: A LANDMARK IN THE HISTORY OF AUDIOVISUAL PRODUCTIONS ON WILDLIFE AND NATURE The digital remastering and restoration on DVD of El Hombre y la Tierra (probably the most successful in history documentary TV series on wildlife and nature, watched during the second half of seventies by 800 million people in more than 40 different countries of the five continents, a figure which has outstandingly increased since the demise of the mythical Félix Rodríguez de la Fuente, thanks to a number of further TV broadcasts) is one of the most important audiovisual projects devoted to wildlife and nature ever made in the world, and has been accomplished by Divisa Ediciones through the frame by frame professional digitization with a last generation film scanner with which every original 35 mm negative was scanned at 10 bits instead of 8, that are the usually delivered by a conventional system. That enabled working with a colour gradation of 1024 tonalities for each one of the primary RGB colours, instead of doing it with the 256 tones which would have been attained with an 8 bit device, in such a way that the maximum feasible quality was obtained for the next step: the colour correction, which was fulfilled by means of a professional last generation digital corrector able to work with infinite layers, irregular masks and tracking points to follow the movements, and after this colour correction was made, the images underwent a digital restauration phase with painstaking removing of unstability areas, emulsion scratches, dust specks, splicing locations, etc) of the original 35 mm reels. It all would have never been possible without the great foresight and wisdom of Marcelle Genevieve Parmentier, Félix Rodríguez de la Fuente´s widow, who has very carefully kept the many original Kodak 35 mm reels including the 124 chapters of El Hombre y la Tierra TV series (Venezuelan Wildlife, Iberian Wildlife, Canadian Wildlife and Alaska) filmed between 1974 and 1980. The collection is made up by a total of 25 DVD discs, encompassing the 92 chapters of Fauna Ibérica, the 18 of Venezuelan Fauna and 14 of Canadian Fauna, and also including a biography on Félix Rodríguez de la Fuente written by her daughter Odile. Poza de la Sal (Burgos). 2010. Foto: José Manuel Serrano Esparza Poza de la Sal (Burgos) . 2010. Foto: José Manuel Serrano Esparza Poza de la Sal (Burgos). 2010. Foto: José Manuel Serrano Esparza Poza de la Sal (Burgos). 2010. Foto: José Manuel Serrano Esparza Poza de la Sal (Burgos). 2010. Foto: José Manuel Serrano Esparza The image quality of these DVD discs is amazing, but bearing in mind that the most updated Blu-ray players can reproduce DVD discs at their standard resolution or have the player upscale the DVD playback signal to attain 720p/1080i or in some devices even 1080p, we can go a step beyond and watch these marvellous colour productions almost in HD to practical effects, reaching a level of image quality that can only be defined as extraordinary, greatly keeping the resolving power, contrast and aesthetics of image of the original professional cinematographic 35 mm films used with Arri and Mitchell movie cameras by Félix´s team during seventies. TOP-NOTCH QUALITY SOUND OBTAINED WITH PROFESSIONAL HI-FI MONOPHONIC NAGRA III NP AND NAGRA 4.2 REEL TO REEL TAPE RECORDERS BETWEEN 1974-1980 AND DIGITALLY RESTORED AND REMASTERED 30 YEARS LATER Since the beginnings of sixties, Félix Rodríguez de la Fuente becamed very fond of listening sounds produced by different animal species, recorded by the analogue tape recorders then available in Spain, whose variety and quality didn´t usually reach the level of fidelity craved for by Félix, a man gifted with high auditive capacity, being used to listening to the animals in their natural habitat and whishing at all cost to be able to reproduce with maximum feasible the wide range of sounds emitted above all by praying birds and mammals in their most diverse living circumstances for their subsequent study. After a lot of goings out to the countryside with different analogue to reel tape recorders and making many recordings without achieving the results he wanted, Félix Rodríguez de la Fuente, with his typical stubborness and great autodidact ability, began to deeply study the professional sound recording systems existing by that time. Till then, studio cameras were soundproof and solved the initial problem of direct sound, but couldn´t be used outdoors. Félix had already in mind the creation of the documentary movies on fauna and nature filmed on wild landscapes, which would make him famous all over the world during seventies and who would turn him into the international referent in this scope, but before it, he had to find a solution for the recording of live sound in the outdoors documentary films he wanted to make: he needed noiseless cameras (he had also studied the various systems of synchronized sound and noise reduction blimps for 16 mm Bolex cameras) which could be used in all kind of biotopes, but besides, it was wholly necessary to have a professional high fidelity sound device getting the highest quality of sound, simultaneously being linked to the cinematographic 35 mm movie camera in such a way that it allowed the synchronizing of image and sound. Finally, in late sixties he chose the portable professional reel to reel Hi-Fi monophonic full track tape recorder Nagra III NP (1962), featuring a very high fidelity of sound and Neopilot crystal sync (enabling the 100% working at the same time of both the tape recorder and the 35 mm movie camera connected without any wire, through an electronic beep which was recorded on the tape each time that the movie camera began filming, which allowed for the later synchronization with the picture), which had been the qualitative pinnacle used by Hollywood cinema industry regarding professional sound in outdoor shootings since 1963. The Nagra III, whose first model had appeared in 1957, was one of the masterpieces of the famous based in Switzerland and Polish sound engineer Stefan Kudelski, who through a wise use of germanium transistors and a servocontrolled DC motor, along with a very hard aluminium chassis and above all a modulometer measuring the decibelic peaks, managed to create this legendary and very compact professional tape recorder, highly convenient to transport (it could use 12 cylindrical D batteries as a power supply) and using flexible cellulose acetate 1/4 inch tape. It was a very reliable and virtually indestructible contrivance, even under the hardest climate conditions, delivering an extraordinary sound quality that was only improved at those moments by the Hi-Fi stereo reel to reel Ampex 3-track (with Model 300-3 valve amplifier) heavy studio tape recorder used in the second half of fifties by the great sound engineer Lewis Layton to make the legendary RCA Living Stereo Sound recordings during the concerts of Fritz Reiner conducting the Chicago Symphony Orchestra, along with other prominent world class musicians like Jascha Heifetz, Igor Piatigorsky, Artur Rubinstein, etc. The Neopilot synchronizing system boasted such a quality and accuracy that it was almost 20 years in the market being the flagship of the professional cinematographic domain until late eighties, when it was replaced by the standard timecode, while the professional analog 1/4 inch (6.35 mm) tape was progressively substituted by the DAT System since mid nineties. So as to realize the sound quality obtained by Félix Rodríguez de la Fuente with professional Nagra III reel to reel tape recorder (which would reach its apex with the tapes recorded by the sound technician Manuel Peña in the chapters of El Hombre y la Tierra deling with the acoustic war between night preying birds and rodents, as we´ll see later), it´s important to bear in mind that though modern high-end digital recorders are technically more precise, the qualitative building level and sound realism attained with the analog reel to reel Hi-Fi recorders made by Stefan Kudelski are simply superb and made up in 1957 at the moment of the launching of the model Nagra III a revolution in the concept of the highest level professional recording with portable devices, so they became the sound standard of Hollywood industry during sixties, seventies and eighties, three decades throughout which their sound quality was only beaten by the aforementioned High Fidelity Living Stereo Sound Recordings (firstly made with an Ampex-3 1/2 inch valve amplifier tape recorder and cardioid condenser Neumann U-47 and omnidirectional M-49/50 microphones), and above all since 1961 by the amazing Mercury Living Presence Stereo Sound Recordings firstly made with a 3 track valve amplifier Westrex 35 mm magnetic sound film recorder and omnidirectional Telefunken U-47, RCA 44BX, BK 5 and KM 56, using a three mike recording technique. Both the original three track RCA Living Sound recordings made on 1/2 inch (12.7 mm) tape and the three track Mercury Presence Sound Recordings made on large surface 35 mm celluloid, were subsequently mixed down to two tracks 1/4 inch (6.35 mm) tapes to get the masters for its stereo launching into the market. They were then with difference the world reference in terms of sound quality, but exceedingly large and heavy, using valve amplifiers, very expensive to maintain and impossible to transport to outdoors locations. That´s why the brainstorm of Stefan Kudelski, making the very small and portable Nagra III Hi-Fi monophonic recorder was immensely successful, since it was very convenient to take to any location irrespective of the climate conditions, was built like a tank, and the genius managed to get a great sound quality through the use of transistors, miniaturized components, optimized preamps, top class transformers and a very thorough circuitry with highly selected components, proved to be a great breakthrough. In the same way, between 1974 and 1980, during the shooting of a number of chapters of El Hombre y la Tierra, a professional monophonic Hi-Fi open reel Nagra 4.2 tape recorder (handled both by the aforementioned Manuel Peña and Antonio Torreblanca, another great sound technician and a collaborator of D. Félix Rodríguez de la Fuente) was also used. The Nagra 4.2 had appeared in 1971. It featured silicon transistors and an antidistortion circuitry with optimized audiophile components, including new specifications and even improved the the excellent sound quality of the previous Nagra III (1957), Nagra III NP (1962) and Nagra-L (1968) models, as well as adding more powerful microphones, superior preamps and built-in equalizers. It can make recordings by means of microphones or through a signal line input, featuring three working speeds: 15" /sec (38 cm /sec) which is the one delivering more quality of sound, 7.5"/sec (19,05 cm /sec) and 3.75"/sec (9.5 cm/sec), NAB or CCI standard, along with two independent heads for recording and playback, modulometer and two microphone inputs (with different models of microphones preamplifiers available with Dynamic, T or Phantom power, depending of the type of microphone attached), and a further line input through a QCE cable. Besides, it can flawlessly work at temperatures between -20º C and 72º C (with cylindrical D batteries) and between -55º C and 71º C with external power supply. In the same way as the Nagra III NP, the Nagra 4.2 (in its NQL version featuring Neopilot system - with optional accessory QGX-3 Quartz Crystal Pilot Generator for wireless synchronized filming and selectable signal frequency between 50 and 60 Hz +- 0.001 % - which was the one chosen by Manuel Peña and Antonio Torreblanca, sound technicians of El Hombre y la Tierra) is very stable to extreme temperature changes and is built like a tank, but sporting the quality and thoroughness of a Swiss watch, boasting the quartz generated Neopilot 50/60 Hz system of synchronization to cinematographic cameras, as well as being able to work both with the external ATN-3 supply source and with 12 cylindrical D batteries inside. Sennheiser MKH 816T professional directional microphone, the model used by Manuel Peña and Antonio Torreblanca to record live outdoors sound, connected to the Nagra 4.2 with a three pin XLR cable. Appeared in 1975 and featuring a weight of 350 g, 55.6 cm in length and a diameter of 1.9 cm, it was one of the first superdirectional microphones launched into market, with a low impedance capsule design making it virtually immune to high humidity and condensation, and the typical special preamplifier for condenser microphones, built-in within its casing, and enabling the transmission of the signal through a cable. This kind of microphones only use resonators in the extreme high frequencies (where coloration phenomenon is not important), so they´re by far the best ones regarding fidelity and realism in the outdoors sound capturing, certainly extraordinary, with the added bonus of an excellent reproduction of the transient sounds. It was used in a lot of chapters of El Hombre y la Tierra at a speed of 38 cm/sec to achieve maximum feasible qualities sound registers on wildlife and nature locations. A Rycote windshield for professional Sennheiser MKH 816T similar to this was used by Manuel Peña and Antonio Torreblanca in different chapters of El Hombre y la Tierra. This accessory (completely surrounding both the microphone and its connector, creating a mass of still air around the mic) gives a great protection against noise brought about by strong winds, enabling its reduction up to 25 dB, which was specially useful during the shooting of El Hombre y la Tierra chapters made in Canada (Nahanni and Kluane National Parks) and Alaska, whose sound takes were made by Manuel Peña. Since the human factor was and goes on being the key element for the quality of sound recordings, a top-notch monophonic recording made during fifties, sixties and seventies by a qualified sound technician or engineer, can sound better than a CD, SACD or DVD-Audio recorded in late nineties or during the first decade of XXI Century with much more sophisticated and expensive means. And that is exactly what happened with the recordings made with Nagra III NP and Nagra 4.2 by Manuel Peña (a great sound technician and collaborator of Félix Rodríguez de la Fuente) who made the sound recordings of all the 124 chapters of El Hombre y la Tierra Series (filmed in Venezuela, Spain, Canada and Alaska) between 1974 and 1980, without forgetting the invaluable help of Antonio Torreblanca and Manuel Barroso, who also cooperated with Félix in the sound side in some of his programs. It´also important to bear in mind that both the Nagra III NP and the Nagra 4.2 are professional full track recorders in which the 1/4" (6.35 ) tape is recorded on the whole width of its cellulose acetate surface, in only one way, so the quality and fidelity of the sound obtained are excellent. In the same way as happens with the digitally remastered impressive image quality of El Hombre y La Tierra DVD discs made by Divisa Ediciones frame by frame from the original 35 mm cinematographic chemical emulsions rolls (both the "normal" edition and the one recently launched into market in luxurious box for collectors), far superior to everything available before, both in VHS tapes and in youtube, the original 1/4 inch (6.35 mm) analogue tapes recorded in Hi-Fi with professional reel to reel Nagra tape magnetophones and also wisely kept through almost thirty years by Marcelle Genevieve Parmentier, has made possible Divisa Ediciones to digitally remaster such original sound, restoring the music, the effects and the narrations, mixing it all again to get top sound quality, as well as reducing to zero the residual noise inherent to every professional tape recorder (though in the Nagra III and 4.2 it was exceedingly low, because they were the elite of the portable recorders of its time, along with the Stellavox models) making possible today, more than thirty years later, the choice of two kinds of two very high quality digital sound listening when watching El Hombre y la Tierra DVD discs: a) Top-notch Digital Hi-Fi monoaural sound; b) Very good Digital Dolby 5.1 sound created from the original digitized and restaured Hi-Fi monophonic. Professional condenser directional MKH 816T microphone with its Rycote windshield and wool container. It was optimized for live recordings in outdoors locations and the sound quality achieved by this legendary microphone was so remarkable, that it was used during eighties by the Audubon Soctiety for the recording of sound registers produced by different species of birds, and even John Feith, the engineer that designed the noise reduction filter for Sony, is currently a enthusiast user of it. This combination was the outdoors world reference throughout the second half of seventies and well inside eighties, (until later models as the Sennheiser MKH 70 microphone sporting roughly half the weight, more accuracy and even more reduced levels of distorsion, were progressively replacing it), which gives an idea of the impressive level of sound quality craved for in every location and climate by the El Hombre y la Tierra team directed by Dr. Félix Rodríguez de la Fuente. Antonio Torreblanca used highly skilfully the Nagra 4.2 connected to profesional directional Sennheiser MKH 816T microphone covered by a Rycote windshield to record all kind of natural ambient sounds in different chapters of El Hombre y la Tierra series, specially the ones dealing with the Iberian Wolf and filmed on River Dulce Valley, near the village of Pelegrina (Guadalajara), where Manuel Peña also took part in the sound register side. It must be underlined that David Attenborough also used the Nagra 4.2 for the sounds recording in its series on wildlife for the BBC Life on Earth (1979), adding the updating enabling the SMPTE timecode recording at the beginning of the eighties, though shortly after, he chose the Nagra-IV-S stereo with which aside from the built-in pilottone crystal synchronizing, it was possible the timecode recording since 1984. Therefore, it´s clear that in the same way as happened regarding image quality with his big Arri and Mitchell 35 mm cinematographic cameras, Félix Rodríguez de la Fuente attained the best sound quality available in the world with portable equipments until his death in 1980, making use of the best Nagra reel to reel professional tape recorders and being assisted by highly expert sound technicians like Manuel Peña and Antonio Torreblanca, getting a highly natural and dynamic sound featuring great definition, tonal neutrality and remarkable accuracy in the obtainment of the most delicate microinformations and all kind of details of different nature and wildlife locations. The internal construction of the Nagra III NP reveals a painstaking care in every aspect related to the high accuracy mechanics and its decisive influence in the sound, without forgetting the impeccable thoroughness in the welding points (a key side to maximize the top-notch quality sound performance). In this other image of the innards of the Hi-Fi monophonic Nagra III NP we can see the circuitry made with very high quality audiophile components. The analog cicuitry topology of both the Nagra III NP and the Nagra 4.2, handcraftedly made without any compromise, with exquisitely chosen electronic components, is very apparent while listening to these El Hombre y la Tierra DVD discs, whose sound realism makes us feel the emotion of the live recording experienced by Félix and his collaborators more than three decades ago, since it is a crystal clear sound reproducing in a very truthful way the acoustic atmosphere in the middle of nature of each one of the places where a live recording for every chapter was made, with a minimal degree of auditive fatigue after a lot of hours relishing these audiovisual troves in DVD format. Image of the Hi-Fi monophonic Nagra 4.2 showing the inner area of both its upper and lower area. In the same way as in the Nagra III NP, it excels because of its great beauty of design, the lavish abundance of aluminum and a mechanizing precision inherent to Swiss watch manufactures, made with long lived noble metals able to endure a hard outdoors professional use for decades. An inside detail of the Nagra 4.2 lower area in which highlight a very refined transistors electronics, a brainstorm by the genius Stefan Kudelski, exceedingly high quality audiophile components chosen because of their sound virtues after a number of listening hours, and a hugely sophisticated circuitry for the time merging a truly high fidelity sound personality with very advanced assembly techniques. A faultless construction, guaranteeing the preservation of its efficiency for many years. It´s important to bear in mind that though logically at present, already within XXI Century, a very high percentage of professional sound recording equipments are digital, it isn´t less true that a lot of sound engineers and technicians along with experts on sound effects, currently prefer using professional analog reel to reel Nagra tape devices for recording sounds with very wide dynamic range, which clearly proves the huge realism of the sound register, the true reproduction of the acoustic atmosphere where the recording was made and the live feeling they achieve, as well as being superior when tackling unexpected signal overloads. It´s likewise a sound image sporting an indescribable realism in the different sound planes, keeping a flawless stability irrespective of the listening volume, something that can be uttterly enjoyed with Home Cinema equipments, thanks to the excellent digitization implemented by Divisa Ediciones from the extraordinary original monophonic Hi-Fi sound takes made by Manuel Peña and Antonio Torreblanca with portable high end Nagra III NP and Nagra 4.2 on 1/4 ´(6.35 mm) analog tapes. Almost twenty years would have to elapse after the demise of Félix Rodríguez de la Fuente until Chris Watson, probably the most important expert in the history of recording of sound for documentary films on wildlife and nature could improve the sound quality attained by Félix Rodríguez de la Fuente in El Hombre y La Tierra (1974-1980) in the David Attenborough´s The Life of Birds (1998) and The Life of Mammals (2002) series made for the BBC, respectively using the 16 bit solid state recorder and player Nagra ARES-C with Sigma-Delta AD/DA conversor and 16, 24, 32 and 48 kHz sampling frequencies with internal timecode and the Nagra DII with integrated 24 bit AD/DA converters, sampling frequency of up to 96 kHz stereo and obtention of the greatest dynamic range with a professional portable sound recorder, enabling to record a wider variety of sounds and using a significantly higher sound percentage, saving post production costs, and also featuring a built-in timecode. However amazing it may seem, Félix Rodríguez de la Fuente was sure that future audio market would greatly be defined in audiovisual terms and along with the maximum feasible image quality he also looked for the excellence regarding sound quality, both in the recording and playback of it. Therefore, both the users of large size plasma, LCD and LED TV Screens and the owners of Home Cinema Full HD equipments will relish not only a huge image quality sporting the excellent aesthetic qualities (colours saturation, exceptional sharpness, etc) inherent to the cinematographic 35 mm chemical emulsions, but also an impressive sound quality both when the main characters are the different animals and when Félix speaks, an utterly new experience now available to all the persons who watched the El Hombre y La Tierra TV Series during seventies, eighties and nineties in TV and VHS tape alike with a very inferior audiovisual quality which was at light years distance of the extraordinary quality of image and sound featured by these wonderful new DVD discs made by Divisa Ediciones. HUGE MEDIATIC IMPACT IN SPAIN AND MANY OTHER COUNTRIES OF THE FIVE CONTINENTS AND EVERLASTINGNESS OF HIS MESSAGE Félix Rodríguez de la Fuente made a tremendous impact both in the Spanish society and other millions of people living in different countries of the globe, by means of his very abundant appearances in a number of TV programs in late sixties and during seventies (stages which had been preceded by not less influent radio broadcast weekly programs on animals and nature), where he displayed his colossal knowledge on different zoological species both from the Iberian Fauna and from other continents alike, and he showed his millions of TV watchers the huge passion and stubborness with which he defended his conservationist and ecological ideas, his strenuous endeavours up to the last drop of his stamina to save animals in danger of extinction, his utter conviction and mastery on the topics he dealt with, his inexhaustible working capacity, his persistence steadily being the man assuming more risks to protect his teammates (for instance, during the shooting of anacondas rescue in Venezuela in one of the chapters of El Hombre y La Tierra, he´s always who takes each huge Eunectes murinus by the head and neck, a highly jeopardous action, as would be dramatically shown in the famous scene in which one of the powerful anacondas is about to kill him after loosing his grab and trying to bite Félix Rodríguez de la Fuente´s head, though he manages to push himself backwards in the last moment), his environmental concerns, his lifetime struggle for creating protected natural spaces and National Parks conceived as shrines for animals, his incredible enthralment and accuracy on speaking - always improvising without using any script or sheet of paper with data- always finding the appropriate word without repeating, putting all of his soul in everything he said on his beloved animals, the way in which he was identified as the pack leader by wolves, his love for children and so many more things. His message paid off, people haven´t forgotten him and more and more youngsters and adults alike are increasingly interested in the figure of Félix Rodríguez de la Fuente, a man of huge scientific and human stature whose remembrance goes on alive, because its message paid off and his flame shall never extinguish and whose pith has been masterly explained by Benigno Varillas in his great book Félix Rodríguez de la Fuente: His Life, A Message of Future, a 761 pages work that was very recently showed up on March 12, 2010 in trhe Ministry of Environment, Rural Environment and Sea Environment by the author, Marcelle Genevieve Parmentier and Odile Rodríguez de la Fuente, proving that thirty years after his death, the great Spanish naturalist and zoologist is more alive than ever, and which in my viewpoint makes up an indispensable reference for all those wishing to delve deeply into Félix Rodríguez de la Fuente life and work, along with a lot of sides regarding his character and unknown till now details on his biography, together with features clearly proving his very wide historical scope as a visionary man who anticipated in almost 40 years, since the beginning of sixties as to the tackling of ecological, environmental and scientific topics which would bring about a great social awareness already within the XXI Century. The first sample of this book was given in Poza de la Sal (Burgos) to Policarpo de la Fuente, Dr. Félix Rodríguez de la Fuente´s childhood great friend, by Benigno Varillas. " I do remember that when I was a child, after having gone to the high barren plateaus of Poza de la Sal, my village, and already coming back home beyond evening, with the first stars, the village smelt in a remarkable way. It was the chimneys fire which then smelled of charcoal, boxwood trees, waterproofed cloths, firewood. The village smell, maybe merged with the baked bread smell and the somewhat acid and warm smell of the domestic livestock. The smell my village had every time I returned in the evenings touches me right down to the bottom of my soul ". Poza de la Sal (Burgos). 2010. Photo: José Manuel Serrano Esparza. WORLD TOP AUTHORITY IN THE KNOWLEDGE ON A LOT OF PREY BIRDS Dr. Felix Rodriguez de la Fuente holding his famous Peregrine Falcon "Durandal" (Falco Peregrinus). The great naturalist was one of the scientists signing in 1954 the Spanish Society of Ornithology. From this platform and thanks to the field studies he personally implemented, it was possible to protect both the Falcon Peregrine and the night prey birds in Spain in 1966, something for which was also highly instrumental the 1963 International Congress for the Protection of the Preying Birds in Caen (France), where he displayed his extraordinary research on the populations of Peregrine Falcon in Spain, an event very enhanced by Dr.Félix Rodríguez de la Fuente through his widespread worldwide relationships with other falconers and biologies (for instance, Michel Terrasse, VicePresident of Birdlife France was a great friend of his) fighting for attaining a change of mentality on preying birds, who were sadly deemed till then as harmful animals, so they were often killed by the use of poisons, shooting (even paying money for it) and pesticides. Always working at the end of his tether, Félix managed to achieve his goals in this regard, turning Spain into the flagship country on the study of prey birds through a wide assortment of conservationist laws. Félix Rodríguez de la Fuente was always enraptured by the exceptional beauty and features of the Peregrine Falcon (Falco peregrinus), and his idyl with this fairly beautiful bird prey began during thirties, being a little boy in Poza de Sal (Burgos), his native village, when one day, being by a big pool located in the outskirts, he suddenly heard a whistle and saw a Peregrine falcon diving steeply from a great height at an astounding speed (it can reach up to 400 km/hour in its stoop) against a flying duck, killing it with the impact of its claws at high velocity, with the duck still alive falling by him. This experienced exerted a huge influence in the life of felix and his future deep interest and study of different preying birds, steadily being fascinated by the falconry art which enabled a man to hunt in synergy with an utterly free bird, which after the flight came back to its hand. The contact with this amazing bird prey (such is its beauty and elegenace that its variety Falco peregrinus brookei inspired director John Huston for the creation of the statue of the 1941 film Maltese Falcon, with Humphrey Bogart, Mary Astor and Gladys George) was decisive during Dr Rodríguez de la Fuente´s youth to foster his interest in the world of animal etiology, which he´d subsequently stretch to many other species, birds and mammals alike. And Félix, wholly aware about the need of conveying this conservationist message on prey birds to society, began writing a lot of articles on the topic in various magazines and made his first feature film: Wings and Claws: The Wonderful World of Birds, which won some prices like the Golden Archer of Gijon Festival. Besides, he won an international award of falconry and started a life devoted to communication, both on radio and television, whose turning point was an incredibly successful appearance in the Spanish TV programme Fin de Semana, in which speaking on his beloved Peregrine Falcon "Durandal", he charmed millions of people. Dr Félix Rodríguez de la Fuente with a golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos) perched on his right hand. This highly powerful superpredator praying bird, featuring a tremendous visual capacity equivalent to high quality 10x binoculars enabling it to spot preys at a distance of up to 1 kilometer, was the main character in a number of Félix Rodríguez de la Fuente´s documentary films, dumfounding the TV watchers with astonishing hunting scenes like the mythical one in which a huge golden eagle dives over a kid located on a very high cliff and captures it with its claws, quickly taking it (already dead because of the piercing of the mammal´s head by the golden eagle talons) flying to its nest, an incredible flight which was recorded from various angles throughout its whole trajectory with three 35 mm cameras located on different surrounding crags, proving that thanks to the big buoyancy planes of its wings, the golden eagle is able to transport much heavier animals than itself, as well as being a great acrobat of the sky in spite if its great size, so it can likewise hunt very small birds in flight. On the other hand, Félix brought back to life in Spain the ancient art of hunting with golden eagle, which had almost extinguished both in Europe and rest of the world, with the main exception of the Kazakh, Kyrgyz and Mongolian eaglers, called Berkutchi or Kusbegi, who have developed the hunting with golden eagles (berkuts) for thousands of years, specially in the northern and central regions of Kazakhstan, a tradition and knowledge which was highly secretly transmitted from fathers to sons and which has historically converged on the Altai Mountains of Central Asia, with the city of Bayan Ulgii as a core. Dr Félix Rodriguez de la Fuente was always fascinated by the high art necessary to train a golden eagle and the ancestral synergy between it and man hunting together, as one of the oldest methods of food obtaining, something that Felix knew had been mastered during Bronze Age on the Eurasian steppes several thousand years ago (as is proved by petroglyphs from the Andronov Age) and in Western Europe during Middle Ages, and he finally managed to become a world class expert in the training of both eagles and falcons.The visual sharpness of the Golden Eagle is one of the most perfect optical systems in Nature, and enables this superpreying bird to spot its preys up to a distance of 1 km. RECOVERER OF THE ANCIENT ART OF FALCONRY Falconry had been an art extinguished in Spain for 150 years, and there wasn´t any living falconer in the Iberian Peninsula when Dr Félix Rodríguez de la Fuente began his activity in this scope. Already being a teenager in Poza de Sal, he often risked his life climbing with only a thick rope to reach the nest of different preying birds´ nests located in very high areas of mountains in order to watch them from a very short distance.So ardent was his craving for watching them from as few meters as posible, usually taking his father´s binoculars to also observe them while soaring at high altitudes. By dint of tenacity and perseverance, Félix Rodriguez de la Fuente managed to acquire high knowledge on falconry reading a lot of almost forgotten medieval books written during XIII and XIV Centuries by Prince Don Juan Manuel, Canciller Pero López de Ayala and Juan Sant-Fahagun, along with the work on hunting with goshawk made in XVI Century by Fadrique de Zuñiga and Sotomayor, etc, until he became a world referent on falconry during mid sixties, beginning to write a lot of currently indispensable works on falconry, daily living with and training a wide assortment of preying birds, specially the sublime Peregrine falcon, of which he was top authority in the world until his death in 1980. Therefore, Dr Félix Rodríguez de la Fuente became the link between the binomium Spanish medieval European works on falconry and two very significant works on falconry plus a further significant work also known by the great Spanish naturalist: De Arte Venandi cum Avibus written in 1248 by the Emperor Fredrick II of Hohenstaufen , another hallmark book on the study of birds of prey, and through his deep research on the etiology, ecology and population interactions of preying birds, he forestalled two decades to the great book Population Ecology of Raptors,written by Dr Ian Newton in 1979. With his historical and highly important treatises and divulgative documentary films on prey birds, Félix Rodríguez de la Fuente pioneered from 1959 the revival of falconry in Europe, what is technically known as practice of the hunting with birds (even before J.G Mavrogordato, the other then world class expert on Falconry,whose activity took place in USA and author in 1966 of A Falcon in the Field), some decades before the appearance of later relevant works on falconry like A. Oswald The History and Practices of Falconry (written in 1982),E.Ford´s Falconry, Art and Practice (written in 1992),Wakasuri Minogus´s Takajou ha kataru-Takajou Niwa Arie san wo shinobu (A Falconer Tells-In Memory of the falconer Niwa Arie) written in 1996, N.Fox´s Understanding the Birds of Prey (written in 1996), Viktor Mikhalovich´s Sokolinaya okhota (Falconry)(written in 2005),Joe Roy III´s Duck Hawking-The Art of Falconry written in 2004, the Apprentice Study Guide of the California Hawking Club (Written in 2004), etc. Dr Félix Rodriguez de la Fuente with his great friend Aurelio Pérez, a remarkable naturalist from Soria, known as ´Félix´s right hand´. Sadly demised in April 2008, Aurelio Perez was a world class expert in falconry and praying birds and worked for many years as Félix´s assistant during the shooting of the documentary films on praying birds, specially eagles and falcons. He was a great trainer of different species of eagles, hawks and also some mammals like wolves and genets. Aurelio Pérez also reached international celebrity through the training of the famous ´milana bonita´ appearing in the movie Los Santos Inocentes, directed by Mario Camus and inspired on a novel written by Miguel Delibes. Fauna Mundial, one of the most important encyclopedias ever made on animals and nature in general ever made in the world. It appeared at the beginning of seventies and achieved an unprecedented success, being translated into 14 languages and selling over 22 millions of volumes. This extraordinary work, also known in subsequent editions during eighties and nineties as Enciclopedia Salvat de la Fauna, was the fruit of a formidable team gathered by Editorial Salvat, whose driving force was Dr Rodríguez de la Fuente, who was the author of the texts, and other very young and thriving professionals of biology, naturalism, arts, and photography: - Javier Castroviejo (biologist) - Miguel Delibes (biologist). - Cosme Morillo (biologist). - Pedro de Andrés (biologist). - Carlos G. Vallecillo (biologist). - José Lalanda (sketcher). - Ernesto Cerra (sketcher). - Marcelo Socias (sketcher). - Miguel Angel L. Castaños (sketcher). - Des Barlett (photographer). - Bruce Coleman (photographer). - J. Burton (photographer). - Nino Cirani (photographer). - Gatti (photographer). - B. Hunter (photographer). - W.T.Miller (photographer). - N. Myers (photographer). - M. Quarishy (photographer). - E. Hosking. - J. Robert (photographer). - A. Root (photographer). - S. Trevor (photographer). - C. de Klemm (photographer). Fauna Mundial (Encyclopedia Salvat de la Fauna) was greatly made through a huge toil and effort at every moment, under the helm of Félix Rodríguez de la Fuente, whose working capacity was virtually impossible to follow, something which compelled the team to often work literally on the brink of exhaustion. For instance, there were times in which because of the very high standard of quality Félix wanted for this work, he made Miguel Delibes Castro (currently a prestigious and international level biologist and then very young) repeat his texts up to five times until they had the thoroughness wished by the Maestro. Working conditions during the development of this colossal work were very hard, because it was weekly sold in Spanish newstands through fascicles, week by week, with the different volumes being finally bound in volumes and a total figure of 3,000 pages, an amazing figure for that period, making up the complete illustrated encyclopedia. With this truly world class work, Salvat Editorial had tackled the greatest tour de force ever made in this domain, and the necessity of delivering a new fascicle each week for the huge quantity of purchasers brought about a lot of moments of maximum stress and fidgets. Félix seemed to be never tired, his energy was inexhaustible, and the brutal working rhythm he established put everybody through his paces, what turned the Encyclopedia Salvat of the World Fauna into an invaluable life school for every member of the team. The texts of this work are considered among the cream of the cream ever written on Fauna, and were greatly made by Félix Rodríguez de la Fuente, who dictated them to a secretary that typed them, also painstakingly supervising the texts created by other members of the team, which were revised by Félix, line per line, word by word, until getting the tremendous level of accuracy he had a penchant for. The success of this legendary Encyclopedia Salvat of the World Fauna was such that all the successive editions made between beginning of seventies and late nineties were quickly sold out and coveted by the millions of Dr Félix Rodríguez de la Fuente´s admirers both in Spain and abroad, because it was translated into a lot of different languages and it is nowadays on display in vast majority of natural museums all over the world, as Miguel Delibes Castro had the chance to verify, year by year, after the demise of Félix Rodríguez de la Fuente in 1980. On the other hand, apart from the high number of professional photographers hired by Editorial Salvat to make the pictures of this unique work, Félix Rodríguez de la Fuente supplied a great graphic documentation encompassing many colour slides made by him, which greatly fostered the work, without forgetting the wonderful drawings of animals both in black and white and colour and specific details of them made by the aforementioned professional sketchers, who fairly strengthened the quality of this editorial masterpiece (suffice it to say that in one of the pages devoted to the African elephant there are three sketches showing their milk teeth and molars´ evolution between 13 and 45 years), along with very interesting maps showing the geographic distribution of every species in different countries and continents, along with each scientific zoological name complemented by deep information on their physical features, habits, reproducing cycles, hunting techniques, longevity, etc. But there´s more. This Encyclopedia Salvat of the World Fauna is even more unique and outstanding because Félix Rodríguez de la Fuente wrote a tremendously detailed caption under each photograph and sketch (and there are many thousands) with an incredible knowledge and passion for Fauna. This is absolutely amazing: it is all the same if a three pictures series depicts a leopard hunting a young papion in the Amboseli National Park in Kenya (18 page chapter 17 titled The Conquerors of Firm Ground devoted to papions), if a sketch depicts the courting of Lavanco dabchick Podiceps cristatus with the ceremony of the discovery and the subsequent three phase greetings (Chapter 76 Eurasia/North America Volume), if the picture shows the Kalahari oryx (Chapter 28 The Arid Lands of the African Southwest), if it is a Przewalski horse in Mongolia (Chapter 56 Ungulates of the Steppes), or the famous white gorilla Copito de Nieve at the Barcelona zoo (wonderful 20 page Chapter 41 The Gorilla, explaining his drinking way wetting his hand following his fellows´ technique when they´re free in their natural habitat), or if the photograph shows the sublime Iberian Lynx hunting in ambush (Chapter 59 The Mediterranean Lynx). Félix Rodríguez de la Fuente had always both exceedingly deep knowledge and huge passion to spare, enabling him to write a highly informative caption under each photograph, an aspect in which the Encyclopdia Salvat of the World Fauna also excelled. Félix Rodríguez de la Fuente writing down on a notebook inside a tent in Kenya, during one of the frequent trips he made to Africa - a continent which always enthralled him- during seventies. WORLD TOP AUTHORITY IN THE KNOWLEDGE ON THE IBERIAN WOLF Félix Rodríguez de la Fuente tightly hugging a wolf. His tremendous knowledge on this species of wild canids along with his direct contact with some wolf packs through decades, brought about that he was considered the boss by the rest of members of the group. This wolf would easily be able to kill Félix with a quick bite, but the mutual utter confidence between human being and the animal prevents it. Félix Rodríguez de la Fuente with a cub of Iberian Wolf in Pelegrina (Guadalajara). The great love, admiration and knowledge on this species by the mythical Spanish naturalist was a decisive catalyst in its survival, because in late sixties only roughly 200 Iberian wolves remained in Spain and currently there are approximately 2,000. A very young Félix Rodríguez de la Fuente caressing a wolf. Félix Rodríguez de la Fuente went beyond the initial studies on observation of wolves´ gestures carried out by the ethologist Schenkel in 1947 with colour illustrations (in which according to the different positions of the tale you could infer the menace degree with which it behaves regarding the other members of the wolf pack), and with the help of his great team of sketchers (Iván Fernández, Josechu Lalanda, etc), he developed a very deep scientific research on the body language of wolves, their various facial gestures and their meanings, along with the strong social hierarchy inside the pack, including the roles of dominance, submission and conduct patterns shown by means of olfactory, tactile, auditive and visual signals, together with pronounced submission guidelines inhibiting aggressive lethal fights, so enabling the survival of every member of the group. An impressive image of Dr Félix Rodríguez de la Fuente fairly enraptured while he is fondling a wolf and smelling it. An enraptured Dr Félix Rodríguez de la Fuente under the effects of a passion attack the day he listened to the world famous original soundtrack of the TV series "El Hombre y la Tierra" for the first time. The man by him is Antón García Abril, the great Spanish composer author of the music. Dr. Félix Rodríguez de la Fuente shaking hands with King Juan Carlos I of Spain, while he´s bestowed one of the many awards he received during his professional lifetime. Félix Rodríguez de la Fuente with a genet. Seeing images like this, it´s easy to understand why both during his life and after his passing away this man was called ´The Friend of the Animals´all over the world. THE MYTHICAL CUADERNOS DE CAMPO OF DR RODRIGUEZ DE LA FUENTE Within the exceedingly comprehensive production made by Félix Rodríguez de la Fuente during his lifetime, there´s one which was always considered as a unique trove of information on different species of animals: his world famous countryside notebooks made throughout two decades of hard work, depicting in a very painstaking way every aspect - even the most hidden ones- of each one of his most beloved creatures, which quickly sold out thirty years ago and are currently eagerly sought by naturalists, biologists, zoologists and enthusiasts of nature and its fauna as a whole. They were a total of 60 field notebooks each one featuring 52 pages, launched by Editorial Marín, each one being a masterpiece merging highly in-depth texts thoroughly describing every detail of the species dealt on with amazing passion and brutal knowledge: apperance and size, variations depending on the age, hunting techniques, ecologic distribution, geographic distribution, ways to detect them, ecological ranking, territoriality, feeding, mating periods and rituals, dwellings for reproduction, cubs behaviour and development, familiar cohesion, zoological classification, ecological role and ranking, cronological frame of the reproduction cycles, natural enemies, speed and resistance, acoustic signals, hierarchy, corporal language, etc, it all being lavishly complemented by a large assortment of top-notch colour drawings, diagrams, schemes, statistics and bar graphics, geographical maps, etc. The launching into market approximately thirty years ago by Editorial Marín of the Cuadernos de Campo of Dr Rodríguez de la Fuente represented a milestone both in the history of naturalism and ecologist movement. However incredible it may seem, these field notebooks are currently, already in the second decade of the XXI Century, looked for as jewels by biologists, naturalists, etc. In this image we can see the 60 little volume complete collection of Cuadernos de Campo of Dr Rodríguez de la Fuente, thirty years after the death of the Maestro. Photo: José Manuel Serrano Esparza. Front cover of the number 1 of the Cuadernos de Campo of Dr Félix Rodríguez de la Fuente, dedicated to the Lynx. The legendary sight of the Lynx.- Since ancient times the lynx has been referred to with legends linking it to practically supernatural powers. As a matter of fact, its named is based on Linceo, a mythological character able to see through the objects. Albeit evidently the lynx sight doesn´t pierce the matter, it features such a sharpness that it makes out its possible preys at large distances, as was proved by Lindeman in his famous field tests and which are schematically depicted here. Ecological Distribution.- The Mediterranean or Iberian Lynx occupies currently a unique and exclusive biotopus within our Peninsula: the impenetrable formations of thicket and Mediterranean wood, needing indeed a great vegetable covering to survive, which it only finds nowadays in the unaltered maquis, garrigas and shady places of our central and Andalusian mountain ranges. On top left: Mediterranean wood: The most distinctive vegetal species of the bioma occupied by the Lynx are likewise the most representative of our Peninsula. Middle: Mediterranean thicket and wood. On low left: Cork oak. On low middle: oak grove On low right: Madrone and broom. The Lynx cubs.- They´re drab and rather clear throughout the two first months, also featuring scarcely developed whiskers and very thin brushes. From the fifth month of existence, they become very speckled. Only the adult ones sport the long panaches and beards. Cachorro de 1/2 Mes. Dependen de la Madre: 1/2 month cub. They depend on the mother. Ojos abiertos a los 8 / 10 días: Opened eyes eight or ten days after birth. Madurez sexual altera el ritmo del crecimiento: Sexual maturity alters growth pace. Peso al nacer 200 / 300 gramos: Weight at birth 200 / 300 g. 1/4 cachorros por parto: 1/4 cubs per delivery. Meses: Months. Juegos a partir de los dos meses: Playing since they are two months old. Cachorro de 4 meses: 4 months cub. Front cover of the number 4 of the Cuadernos de Campo of Dr Félix Rodríguez de la Fuente, dedicated to the Night Preying Birds. Appearance and Dimensions Eagle Owl (Bubo Bubo) Height: 65-72 cm. Weight: 2500-3000 g. Wing: 41.5 - 48 cm. Wingspan: 155 -180 cm. Beak: 4 - 4.7 cm. Tarsus: 6.5 - 8 cm. Tail: 22 - 28.5 cm. Very big, with facial panaches. Tawny and drab mottled plumage. Red-orange eyes. Long-eared owl (Asio Otus) Height: 35-39 cm. Weight of the male: 250 g. Weight of the female: 300 g. Wing of the male: 27.6 - 31 cm. Wing of the female: 27.5-32 cm. Wingspan: 85-100 cm. Beak: 2.5 - 2.8 cm. Tarsus: 3.5 . 4 cm. Tail: 13.2 - 15.3 cm. Medium size. Featuring panaches. Elongated head, not rounded like the carabo. Yellow eyes. The vermicular array of the ventral areas is cross-shaped. Screech-Owl (Otus scopus) Height: 20-21 cm Weight: 78-92 g. Wing of the male: 14.4 - 16.4 cm. Wing of the female: 14.4 - 16.6 cm. Wingspan: 49 - 54 cm. Beak: 1.7 - 1.8 cm. Tarsus: 2.5 - 3 cm. Tail: 6.3 - 7 cm. Small, with ears. Highly vermiculated grey drab. It is more elongated than other small owls. On the left.- Grande y rechoncho: Big and chubby. Plumaje muy mimetico: Very mimetic plumage. On the right.- "Orejas" muy largas: Very elongated ears. "Orejas" no muy visibles: Not very visible "ears". Muy pequeño: Very small. Cabeza redondeada: Rounded head. Disco facial muy marcado: Rather pronounced facial disc. Fase gris: Grey face. Fase parda: Drab phase. Tawny Owl (Strix aluco) Height: 37-46 cm. Weight of the male: 331- 490 g. Weight of the female: 336 - 495 g. Wing of the male: 24.5 - 27.3 cm. Wing of the female: 25.5 - 27.5 cm. Wingspan: 90 - 100 cm. Beak: 2.7 - 2.9 cm. Tarsus: 3.4 - 4.5 cm. Tail: 14.5 - 16.5 cm It features the same size as the Buho Chico, but with rounded profiles, without ears and with black eyes. They can be drab or greyish colour. Barn Owl (Tyto alba) Height: 33 - 39 cm. Weight: 330 g. Wing of the male: 26.5 - 29 cm. Wingspan: 91 - 95 cm. Beak: 2.3 - 3 cm. Tarsus: 5.5 - 6.2 cm. Tail: 11 - 12.5 cm. It is very white on the ventral areas and golden on the dorsal ones. A few of them feature cinnamon colour. Its eyes are black and his face white. Disco facial muy marcado: Highly pronounced facial disc. Muy blanca: Very white. En edificios: in buildings. Little Owl ( Athene noctua) Height: 22 - 27 cm. Weight: 124-198 gr. Wing of the male: 15.2 - 16.9 cm. Wing of the female: 15.6 - 17.7 cm. Wingspan: 57 - 61 cm. Beak: 1.8 - 2.1 cm. Tarsus: 2.9 - 3.4 cm. Tail: 7.5 - 8.3 cm. It is small and tubby, with a big head. It has yellow eyes, whitish belly and drab speckled chest. ¡Muy abundante! : Very abundant! Pequeño y rechoncho: Small and tubby. 1 Localización acústica: Acoustic spotting The Weapons of the Night Hunter (Behaviour) On starting the hunt, owls remain motionless on their lookouts, listening to the noises made by rodents while they´re moving and eating. Owls are able to spot the preys to capture them in full darkness. Atención: Paying attention. Penachos plegados: Folded panaches. 2 Localización óptica: Optical locating. Usually, after spotting the rodent through its ear, the owl tries to locate its position. The stereoscopic sight enables the owl to accurately know the distance between it and the rodent. 3 Hunting flight Once it has spotted the location of the prey, the owl dashes into it with powerful and deep wing strokes ending in a sliding with its wings half folded. The structure of its plumage becomes the flight soundless. Silueta aerodinámica: Aerodynamic silhouette. 4 Capture The capture is always made with the talons, with close with a mathematical precision on the victim body. Death is brought about by pressure and wound in vital organs. Hunting Techniques To practical effects, every night preying owl follows the same guidelines of predatory behaviour: in the evening they shake off the drowsiness of its daily immobility and set about a silent flight towards their lookouts and watchtowers, in the midst of the hunting territories. From there, they spot their possible preys through their ears. Once they have accurately determined the location of the victim, they appraoch without making the slightiest noise and dive over it. The fearful traps of the powerful claws of barn owls and owls will close on the mouse or rabbit without these have had any chance of becoming aware of the attack. Eagle Owl: Though he usually hunts stalking, highly often he doesn´t wait for the preys being at its reach and begins a plundering flight, even hitting the underbrushes with its wings in order that the rabbits scare away, so being able to capture them. Vuelo prospector: Exploration flight. Ataque: Attack. Tawny Owl: It always hunts from a lookout. Once it has spotted the prey, it plunges over it in a very abrupt but silent dive, in the same way than all the night preying birds. Ataque súbito: Sudden attack. Captura: Capture. Vuelo prospector: Exploration flight. Cernido: Hovered flight. Ataque vertical: Vertical attack. Barn Owl: It often hunts in open fields, using sometimes a very peculiar technique: it flies over the sown lands at low altitude and when he detects a rodent or an amphibian, it hovers to spot its exact location and falls flat. It all happening at a height not exceeding 2 meters. Persecución aérea: Aerial chase. Hawk Owl: It doesn´t only resemble the sparrow hawk because of its shape and name but also behaving as a diurnal preying bird as to its hunting techniques; it lineally persecutes its prays - most times birds - and hunts them in full flight. Atalaya: Lookout. Picado: Diving. Little Owl: It often hunts in broad daylight, mainly birds it reaches thanks to the speed of its dives and evolutions made at a low altitude over the ground. Persecución Lineal: Linear chase. Front cover of the number 3 of Dr Félix Rodríguez de la Fuente´s Cuadernos de Campo dealing with the wolf. Wolf Appearance It is the biggest, most energetic and popular of the European mammal predators. Both robust and slender, its silhouette portraits the inexhaustible runner and efficent killer: its deep chest, its warped loins and the long and muscled limbs are traits of the champions of endurance; its convex skull, its upright and watchful ears, its transparent eyes and its protruding snout indicate sharp ear, keen eyesight and infallible smell. Its massive jaws and powerful dentition - providing its face ´an oriental appearance´ show an exceedingly lethal apparatus. Thanks to so high psychic and physical qualities, the wolf has been able to survive in spite of the ruthless war against him made by man. Its coat features remarkable individual and racial differences ranging from the white Artic wolves to the melanic ones from the North American woods. In the Iberian wolf the chromatic shades vary from greyish drab - sporting rather silvery hues- and the reddish drab, with high percentage of ocre tones. In the typical scheme of the Iberian wolf we must underline the black lines of the front limbs, which have given the race its name - signatus - , the face outline in which there´s an alternance between dark and light tones - with a pronounced white stripe around its lips-, the large greyish spot of the withers - resembling a saddle - , the tuft of black hairs on the tail tip, and finally the much clearer back of its ears. Body Length: 1.10 - 1.40 m. Tail: 30 - 40 cm. Withers height: 75-80 cm. Peso: 35-45 (maximum 65 kg). Perfil Cóncavo: Concave outline. Envés Auricular (Llamativo): Ear Back (showy). Melena: Mane. Caso Excepcional Lobo Muerto en Polonia Alcanza Peso Límite 90 kg: An exceptional case: Dead Wolf in Poland reaches a maximum weight of 65 kg. Silla de Montar: Saddle. Diseño Facial: Facial Profile. Diseño del "Signatus": Outline of the ´Signatus´. Vientre Pálido: Pale Belly. Cola, Mancha Central Negra: Tail, central black spot. Cola, punta negra: Tail, black tip. Punta Cola Hasta el Corvejón: Tail tip reaching the hock. Ecological Distribution: Nowadays, finding a wolf in nature turns out to be specially difficult. The searcher managing to locate it can notch a true success. The scarce samples still living in the Iberian Peninsula remain limited to the most barren and least travelled areas of the northwest quadrant. At present, he can be greatly considered to be a mountain inhabitant, but this isn´t its natural biotope at all. Some decades ago, wolf was widespread all over the Iberian Peninsula, occupying every classic bioma of our geographic space: salt marshes, oak and cork oak trees woods, Mediterranean wood, even half-deserted like the Southeast ones, cerealistic steppes, caducifoious woods, conifer woods and high mountain. In all of its habitats wolf has featured an impressive ability to move from one place to another, with operating ranges of up to 100 km per day; such an autonomy and his relative nomadism prvides the deceptive feeling that the quantity of wolves is bigger, since the same specimen can be detected in different locations during a short elapse of time. Therefore, we must state that wolf occupies - or at least can occupy - every large bioma of our country. The graph shows the staying time in each of the various depicted biotopes. Montaña: Mountain. Bosque de Coníferas: Conifer wood. Bosque caducifolio: Caducifolious wood. Bosque Mediterráneo: Mediterranean wood. Estepa: Steppe. Ríos, Lagos y Marismas: Rivers, lakes and salt marshes. Costa: Coast. Wolf Cubs, Young Wolves and Adult Wolves: The broods are composed of a variable number of cubs - between 1 and 11-, more commonly between 4 and 7 pups. At this moment, their fur coat is shot and black and they´re called wolf cubs. The suckling period lasts between 3 and 5 weeks during which the male feeds the female by regurgitating the foods. After the weaning, the she-wolf stays by the cubs and they all are fed by the male - which is sometimes helped by the wolf pack - without moving away from the surroundings of the lair during the three long months encompassed by cubs´ growth. Wolf cub up to 5 weeks. After three months and coinciding with the first short trips of the family, the wolf cubs become young wolves when they change their pelt into another one greatly resembling the summer fur coat of their progenitors. Young Wolf from the end of lactation to late summer. Eight months after their birth, in full winter, the young wolves appear as stout as adult wolves, albeit covered in a rougher pelt in which both the facial spots and the saddle are less pronounced. Young Wolf 1st Winter. Young Wolf 2nd Summer. After their first year of life, the young wolves lose their winter fur and they appear indistinguishable from the adults, covered with the short and tight summer pelt. Summer 1st Winter Fur. On reaching their first and a half years after birth, the young wolves become adult ones. Speed and Resistance: While running, wolf is slower than a lot of its preys. As we indicate in the sketch, even seemingly clumsier animals -like the muflon- or smaller - like the fox - are able to develop a quicker run. The theoretical antilogy that a relatively slow animal manages to feed upon other being faster is solved when we learn its hunting tecniques, and above all its huge resistance in the running, enabling him its pace through hours, in such a way that they wear out any of its preys. Uninterrupted running wolf journeys of up to 200 km without any stop have been verified. Everything they lack as sprinters is made up for by its performance as indefatigable long distance runners. Lobo: Wolf Zorro: Fox Muflon: Muflon Gamo: Buck Galgo: Greyhound Liebre: Hare Venado: Stag The year of the wolf: Pelo Invierno: Winter fur. Pelo Verano: Summer fur. Clan Familiar: Familiar clan. Celo: Heat. Gestacion: Gestation. Lactancia: Lactation. Lobeznos y Lobatos: Wolf cubs and Young Wolves. Manadas: Wolf Packs. Aislados: Isolated. Aislados Grupos en Cubiles: Isolated Groups in Lairs. Semana: Week Dos Mudas: Two moltings. Peso en kg: Weight in kg. Evolucion del Peso de los Lobeznos: Evolution of wolf cubs weight. Semanas: Weeks. Denticion: De leche 28 piezas: Dentition: 28 milk teeth. Lobezno: Wolf cub. Adulto 42 piezas: Adult 42 teeth. Lobo: Adult wolf. Incisivos: Incisives Caninos: Canines Premolares: Premolars Molares: Molars. ACOUSTIC WAR BETWEEN NIGHT PREYING BIRDS AND RODENTS: EL HOMBRE Y LA TIERRA STRENGTHENS EVEN MORE ITS POSITION AS UNDISPUTED WORLD FLAGSHIP REGARDING QUALITY OF IMAGE, SOUND AND COMMENTS AMONG THE DOCUMENTARY SERIES DEVOTED TO WILDLIFE AND NATURE, EVEN CLEARLY BEATING NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC AUDIOVISUAL PRODUCTIONS Between 1974 and 1980 Félix Rodríguez de la Fuente achieved with his El Hombre y la Tierra series qualitative levels of image, sound and depth of content unknown till then in the scope of documentary films on fauna and nature, using for it professional 35 mm movie cameras and high end reel to reel Nagra III NP and Nagra 4.2 hi-fi monophonic tape recorders, it all being complemented by his own commentaries full of huge knowledge and passion, which brought about the astonishment and admiration of Keenant Smart (Director of the Nature Unit of National Geographic), because until then the best documentary films on animals were made with 16 mm - or very few times in Super 16 mm- Bolex cameras and Kern Switar primes or Angenieux zooms. The arrival of Félix Rodríguez de la Fuente and the first chapters of El Hombre y la Tierra shot in 1974 in the Venezuelan jungle with heavy 35 mm professional cinematographic cameras made a sensation within the international naturalistic and biological domain, which would be subsequently backed up by further chapters on Iberian Fauna with such species as the wolf, the golden eagle, Spanish Imperial Eagle, the lynx, the genet, etc. Nevertheless, there are in my viewpoint three chapters in which El Hombre y la Tierra reaches even more extraordinary heights which will be exceedingly difficult to beat in future: the ones devoted to the Iberian night preying birds (eagle owls, long-eared owls, tawny owls, screech owls, barn owls and little owls) in their acoustic war against the rodents in the middle of the darkness. With his typical mastery exhibiting his documentary films as stories, Félix Rodríguez de la Fuente shows us with images and sounds how in full night darkness the night preying birds located on their lookouts try to spot through their ears the rodents to hunt them, while these strive after feeding themselves making the fewest possible movements and noise to avoid to be detected. Besides, these chapters make up a prodigy of cinematographic technology and sound engineering, beginning with the installation of minute short wave radio transmitters who are put inside one of the long tail feathers of different species of night preying birds chosen beforehand, whose location is monitorized by Carlos Sanz (then a student of Biological Sciencies and currently a prestigious naturalist) with a short wave receptor Falconer 4 enabling the tracking of the night preying birds up to a distance of 8 kilometers. Later on, a 3 meter hide is built, and Félix Rodríguez de la Fuente, a camera (often Teodoro Roa) and the sound expert Manuel Peña spend a lot of whole nights inside it. We are watching fascinating moments which were an international turning point in these kind of documentary films. Teodoro Roa´s experience and talent with the 35 mm Arri camera and its cinematographic lenses, above all at full aperture, are really impresive, playing with the depth of field planes and a lot of different framings as a full-fledged master, making use of a very wide range of cinematographic techniques under fairly dim light conditions and attaining splendid results remarkably enhancing the stately beauty of the Iberian night preying birds that are consecutively appearing very concentrated and listening on the screen and subsequently hunting their preys in the midst of night darkness. The optical quality of the lenses at full aperture is incontestable. They´re extensively using the best cinematographic lenses available in the world then at their widest f stops, and it is very apparent in the amazing image quality, since however good a Full HD plasma, LCD or LED screen between 32 and 50 inches may be, if the quality of the lenses with which the image is taken don´t make the grade, is virtually unfeasible to get professional quality images. Likewise, the frequent use made of very sophisticated slow motion cinematographic techniques by the 35 mm movie camera operators of El Hombre y la Tierra render these eerie images even more dramatic and unique. On his turn, Manuel Peña makes a brilliant work, recording all the sounds with his professional reel to reel Nagra III NP hi-fi monophonic tape recorder with Neopilot sync to camera, having previously installed some microphones in different areas of the wood where the action is taking place. The usual background noise begotten by the combination of microphone and preamp (in the latter brought about both by its inherent noise and the noise signal called thermic noise) and disturbing the recording of low level sounds, have been reduced to negligible levels, praiseworthily holding sway over the phons and the ASA "A" area of frequency response. You can watch perfectly how the modulometer of the Nagra III NP tape recorder reaches intermediate intensity decibelic peaks when the rodents are eating and top levels when the night preying birds make noise on catching them with their claws, while the rodents cry. The quality of the recorded sound is top-notch. The sound engineers of Divisa Ediciones have taken maximum advantage of the original reduction up to practically insignificant levels of modulation noise, medium range distortions and tape background noise attained in the analog 1/4 inch (6.35 mm) reels by Manuel Peña with the Nagra III NP at a speed of 19,05 cm/sec during the original sound take (the most important key factor) more than thirty years ago, which proves once more than the labor of a professional sound technician and his working methods are fundamental to record an excellent live sound, along with the possibility of using microphones ( different to the ones in the camera) and high end filming and recording equipments (Nagra and Arri respectively) during the second half of seventies, perfectly synchronized by the Neopilot system. The spectator feels the live thrill, due to the flawless location of the sound image, in a Hi-Fi monophonic sound clearly going beyond the PCM stereo in terms of quality, thanks to the superb original sound takes made more than thirty years ago and to the professional digitization of the analog 1/4´(6.35 mm) tapes made by Divisa Ediciones, and boasts a sound quality slightly over many modern digital recordings of compact discs carried out with HDCD code/filter and on the threshold of the qualitative level obtained by Super Audio CD format through digital DSD coding. It´s an extraordinary Hi-Fi sound quality, comparable to the original Hi-Fi monophonic quality of sound of the different 16 minutes 1/4 ´ (6.35 mm) tapes recorded by expert British sound engineers (belonging to the shooting film) with each of the two professional Nagra III NP reel to reel recorders connected wireless to two cinematographic cameras (Arri 16 BL with Angenieux 12-120 mm f/2.2 with 400´ magazines) through Neopilot crystal synchronizing system and used during the early stages of the Get Back Sessions rehearsals in the Twickenham Studios at St Margarets, London, on January 3, 1969, which were edited thirty three years later by Yellow Dog Records in 2002 with the title The Beatles Stereo A-Cam B-Cam at Twickenham. January 3th 1969, availing themselves of the fact that during that specific day, both Nagra III NP recorders worked simultaneously, each one with its own microphones, so it was possible more than three decades later to synchronize the sounds from the analog tapes A and B recorded on that January 3, 1969 by each one of the Nagra professional magnetophones and get a remarkable binaural stereo effect, something which wasn´t possible with the rest of Nagra tapes of the Twickenham Get Back Sessions, because from January 4, 1969 till January 31 of that month (the date in which the recordings finished) the cinematographic cameras used the same audio feed. In these chapters of El Hombre y la Tierra devoted to the acoustic war between night preying birds and rodents. he quality/noise sound ratio, the frequency response waveform and the sound planes stratification are excellent. There´s a complete immersion of the listener into the existing ambient during the moments of the real live sound take, a kind of return to future in which personal experiences and emotions are shared with Félix and his collaborators, in the same way that the aforementioned Nagra recordings of the Beatles at Twickenham Studios make you believe that you are there, above all if you listen to them through headphones. This is Stefan Kudelski ADN sound. The stress reaches a lot of peak levels while the spectator watches and listens to the development of this acoustic war between night preying birds and rodents, and at the same time you can see how Félix, Manuel Peña and a camera operator are standstill inside the hide during complete nights, enduring very low temperatures, a climax being brought about with every attack of eagle owls, long-eared owls, screech owls, tawny owls, barn owls, little owls and hawk owls on mice, dormice, etc. Owing to the excellent sound amplification of the live take with microphones located in the wood and connected to the Nagra III NP Hi-Fi, we can listen to the sounds made by the rodents while they are eating, the flight of the night prey birds when they change their watchtowers to optimize the spotting of their preys, the lightning diving attacks over the rodents that are hunted, the moment in which the claws of each night preying bird pierce their victims´ bodies and how these ones cry during their last seconds of life. Once more, the technically exceptional original live sound take (on which everything depends to a great extent) has managed to get a fabulous precision in the faithful capturing of the sound atmosphere of the moment, perfectly dimensioned, with a very tangible sound stage, plenty of informative density and accuracy in the display of the different planes in which there are sounds, giving rise to great realism and an outstanding reduction of the auditive fatigue, since besides, the wholly metallic construction of the Nagra III NP guarantees both an impeccable structural integrity and an immunity with regard to all kinds of external vibrations. They are practically imperceptible sounds at the height of night darkness, but the ability of the Nagra III NP to record the decibelic low intensity acoustic signals with amazing definition turns out to be of invaluable help for the successful differentiation of the most various sounds sent forth by the diverse species of night preying birds and rodents, without forgetting the very pure and pronounced silences during the impasse moments fostering even more the sound personality of the professional monophonic take in High Fidelity. Later on, during the filming of El Hombre y la Tierra chapters shot in Canada (Canadian Fauna), Manolo Peña made in July of 1979 another exceptional work recording all kind of ambient sounds, animal sounds and machine sounds (piston engined hydroplanes, helicopters, jet engine driven boats, etc) in wonderful landscapes of the Nahanny National Park, Kluani National Park, Yukón Territory, Vancouver Island coast, etc, being one of the pioneers in the use of large windshield for external mike connected to his Nagra 4.2, significantly reducing the noise brought about by powerful winds frequent in these areas. Everything suggests that Félix Rodríguez de la Fuente perfectly knew that future digital technologies would enable this huge audiovisual quantum leap in quality with which both the current generation and the next ones will be able to watch his immense bequest on large Plasma, LCD and LED screens approaching to a theatre quality in image and sound alike. This man was truly extraordinary, irrepeteable and unforgettable. A multidisciplinar visionary that went more than three decades beyond his time and a deep humanist, very exacting in the work with his collaborators but mainly with himself, frequently at the end of his tether. It must be underlined that after Félix´s demise, in both the professional cinematographic domain and the audio high end scope, throughout eighties were used professional reel to reel Hi-Fi tape recorders featuring sound quality and specifications superior to the Nagra III, as the Nagra IV-S with Neopilot synchronization, the Nagra IV NQS-TC with timecode and separate heads for recording and playback (both of them with speed choices of 38, 19 and 9.5 cm/seg) and in a lesser percentage the fabulous Stellavox designed by Georges Quellet (sporting even further electronical miniaturization and mechanic accuracy) as the SP-8 and the SU-8, the sound quality, reliability and resistance to the toughest professional use of the Nagra III (an icon design by Stefan Kudelski which revolutionized the professional recordings of the Hollywood cinematographic industry since the beginning of sixties) was still so remarkable that a lot of scientists and naturalists went on using it in their experiments and field tests. To mention only an example, in 1986 the expert American ornithologist Douglas A. Nelson from the Research Center of Rockefeller University in Millbrook, New York, used a Nagra III at a speed of 19 cm/seg and coupled to Sennheiser MKH 816 microphone to record sounds emitted by field sparrows in 98 different areas, with the sound being subsequently transferred to a computer at a 20.8 kHz sampling frequency for its analysis by means of a special software program and further study, which enabled him to state that field sparrows (Pusilla del Spizella) integrate information of at least five different traits in the recognition of the song typical in its species, but give more importance to information from a constant feature and to the song frequency than to the information stemming from variant features. This way, it´s apparent that regarding sound quality, Félix Rodríguez de la Fuente used the best of the best available in the world until his death in 1980, and being aware about the huge significance of the original sound take, he looked for great sound technicians like Manolo Peña and Antonio Torreblanca to optimize the final results as much as possible, which he utterly attained, for together with an exceptional image quality, the El Hombre y la Tierra DVD discs enable to relish an audiophile Hi-Fi experience in digital monophonic sound or an excellent and very spectacular Dolby 5.1, it all thanks to the good work made by Divisa Ediciones sound engineers, almost thirty years after the chapters were made. CANADA: THE ICING ON THE CAKE OF AN EXCEPTIONAL CAREER Invited by the Government of Canada and with the support of the Service of Nature Protection of canada, the Department of Fishing and Environment of Canada, the Canadian Embassy in Madrid and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs in Ottawa, Dr. Félix Rodríguez de la Fuente filmed between 1979 and 1980 the 14 last chapters of El Hombre y la Tierra series in Canadá, being deeply impressed and infatuated by both the landscapes and the rich wildlife of this great country, which he masterfully depicted with amazing shootings among which highlight: a) Nahanni National Park.- Coming by aircraft from Whitehorse (capital of the Yukon Territory) El Hombre y la Tierra team lands on a little airport of Nahanni National Park and undertakes the ascension of the South Nahanni river (one of the most spectacular wild rivers of North America, being 540 km long and flowing into the Liard River, which on its turns feeds the McEnzie river that empties into the Glacial Arctic Ocean), with the aim of reaching the impressive Virginia Falls (96 metres, twice the height of Niagara ones ), travelling 250 km in three stages from a established point on board of some very fast stainless steel boats driving them 80 km/h upstream, thanks to their Berkeley jet engines able to attain such a speed against the current. It´s part of the very beautiful north section of the Canadian taiga, an area which hasn´t mostly been trodden by man, because the 476,560 hectares Nahanni National Park (declared World Heritage Site in 1978, a year before Félix´s arrival) is located on the virgin zone of Canada Northwest Territories and can only be explored by aircraft or fluvial vessels, since there isn´t any terrestial route or road linking it with Fort Simpson. It´s an area sporting a wide orographic variety: mountain ranges, rolling hills, high plateaus, incised valleys, canyons between 460 and 1200 m deep and an intricate labyrinth of caves inside its mountain ranges. The temperatures oscillate between extremes of 0º C and 27º C in July and August and -50º C during the winter months. We see a vegetation with profusion of firs and birches, along with an entanglement of rivers and meanders surrounding Nahanni river Basin, together with a rich fauna -made up by more than 40 species of mammals and more than 180 species of birds- of golden eagles, mooses feeding on subaquatic plants (one of them is photographed by Félix), beavers, trumpeter swans, giant uapiti elks, etc, without forgetting the species living in its boreal wood like caribous, grizzly bears, wolves, lynx, etc, and the ones inhabiting on its high summits like Dall´s sheep, Rocky mountain goats, etc. On the other hand, the waters of Nahanni river contain 16 different species of fish. The shooting conditions are rather tough, for the boats advance at full speed and Félix, Teodoro Roa and Alberto Mariano fight at the end of their tether to film all the landscapes and animals progressively appearing around both sides of the boats during their voyage through Nahanni river, so looking for maximum feasible stability, install a huge tripod on the deck of one of the boats with a 35 mm Arri camera on it, while they also film handheld with a second Arri 35 mm camera from another of the boats. The naturalists Carlos Llandres and Patrick Lowsey, who are also part of the El Hombre y la Tierra team, make likewise a praiseworthy labour helping in everything they can. Félix Rodríguez de la Fuente is enraptured watching so much beauty, and explains everything we see with a tremendously lavish description of details and data of all kind. This man is a living computer, with a prodigious memory and very deep knowledge on Zoology, Biology and Animal Ethology. He lives every second with top passion and intensity, knowing as nobody how to transmit it to the audience. Félix is exceedingly fascinated by Canada. Suddenly, after some days of upstream navigation, they arrived at the very dangerous area of quick waters of Nahanni rivers, in the canyons, a very risky zone because of the presence of rapids with rocky outcroppings, where the old pioneers were bound to tow the canoes from the bank. The Nahanni, a wild river featuring a remarkable geological history, carved four deep canyons on the rock, keeping its excentric course. But Félix is with very experienced Canadian jet engined boat pilots, whose great knowledge of Nahanni river enables them to drive the vessels without touching either the rocky outcrops or the rolling stones shoals. Finally, after a three days voyage through Nahanni river against the current, they arrive at Virginia Falls, whose deafening noise fills everything. The sight is gorgeous. Teodoro Roa and Alberto Mariano enchant us with images shot from every direction, audiovisually revealing the Nature strength in one of its maximum expressions. The power and energy of the immense water torrent of Virginia Falls are awesome, in the same way as the mist impregnating a significant percentage of the zone. The Maestro is enthralled by emotion, joyful, astounded. Once and again, the boats move very near the massive water fall, while Teodoro and Mariano film this wonder of nature and treasure of Canada. Suddenly, the climax arrives when Teodoro Roa begins masterfully moving the zoom, making unforgettable close-ups of the Virginia Falls waters dropping en masse while framed by the mist (in the middle of the clangour recorded by the sound technician Manuel Peña with his Hi-Fi monophonic Nagra 4.2), and then there´s a merging of the Virginia Falls waters with the turbulent surface of Nahanni river waters, the chapter ending with further close-ups of the waters of Virginia Falls while a very nice music is heard as a background music. b) Grotte Valerie: Félix Rodríguez de la Fuente solves the mystery of the Frozen Cemetery of 116 skeletons of Dall sheep.- In 1979, during the stay of El Hombre y la Tierra team in the Nahanni National Park, Félix Rodríguez de la Fuente undertook one of the most risky and difficult enterprises of his life: the thorough inward exploration of the Grotte Valerie, a huge cave located inside the north wall of the First Canyon of Nahanni river, with a very arduous access, whose entrance is on a steep 300 hundred meters cliff and where the skeletons of 116 Dall sheep had been found during the previous years, all of them having died because of unknown reasons inside the cave, and featuring an antiquity of 2,500 years. Both the Grotte Valerie and its Great Room where were the 116 skeletons of Dall sheep had been discovered in 1972 by Jean Poirel, a remarkable Canadian explorer and parachustist, born in France and resident in Montreal, who had found 250 caves in Nahanni National Park during four expeditions made in 1964, 1970, 1972 and 1974, the most important one being Grotte Valerie, to which he gave his daughter´s name, and he also made a lot of significant cartographic maps, measuring of the length of a lot of caverns by means of highly accurate devices and topographic writing downs which paved the way for the strengthening of Nahanni National Park, whose main driving force was the Canadian Premier Pierre Trudeau. But the enigma surrounding the death of the 116 Dall sheep 2,500 years before went on unresolved, for the very low temperatures in Winter, Autumn and a good percentage of Spring, only enabled the secure access to the cave during the months of July and August, though always with a temperature inside the cave of -15º C resulting in quick hypothermias. Besides, its floor was very slippery, with a constant jeopardy of falls and accidents. The Dall sheep skeletons had been quickly marked and dated through the carbon 14 technique, but it hadn´t been possible an in depth investigation inside the Grotte Valerie, because of the hypothermias and the many logistic difficulties of conveying to the cave the very heavy lighting equipment necessary to properly illuminate it. Needless to say that the very dangerous working and staying conditions inside the cavern, wholly in darkness, with alternations of tunnels and very narrow passages featuring a height between 1 and 1,5 meters, made virtually impossible the transport of very big 35 mm movie cameras and their lenses, and above all of powerful and very heavy lighting appliances. There had been all kind of hypothesis in Canada on which had been the real cause of the death of so many Dall sheep, an authentic shambles in which 116 of them had died. They were all surmises and the riddle remained unexplained. Félix Rodríguez de la Fuente had already gleaned information about Grotte Valerie, having had access to all the reports made on Grotte Valerie by both Jean Poirel and Canadian scientists, including the perfect numbering and dating of each one of the 116 Dall sheep skeletons, together with a black and white photographic dossier, and in June of 1979, once on Nahanni National Park with the El Hombre y la Tierra Team, and after having reconnoitering 250 km of the South Nahanni river on board of fast boats going upstream until reaching Virginia Falls, he decided to tackle the scientific research of Grotte Valerie and try to find an answer to a puzzle whose keys had been indecipherable for more than ten years. Therefore, El Hombre y la Tierra team got ready to fulfill a feat: the conveyance of almost a ton of lighting equipment (ten 800 watts quartzs, clamps, tripods, 100 square meters of cable, 2 autonomous quartzs of 650 watts, three batteries for the 650 watts quartzs, 4 front lamps, three chargers, 15 batteries of 2 volts and 60 amperes, a very comprehensive medical kit, etc) which coming from Vancouver on a plane, had arrived at Fort Simpson, and from there it had been transported in three flights towards El Hombre y la Tierra base camp in three flights by a little piston engined hydroplane, while the transfer of all the supplies for the mounting of the base camp and the fuel for the helicopter was implemented for three jet driven fluvial vessels. Once in the base camp, the approximately 1,000 kilos of lighting equipment had to be transported by helicopter towards the surroundings of the Valeria Cave, since it was impossible the landing of the aircraft on the steep 300 meters cliff on the river South Nahanni in which the entrance to the cavern is placed, so all the stuff had to be very accurately and carefully lowered in some trips by the helicopter with a big net linked to the aircraft by means of a cable. This risky adventure begins with the moving of the 1,000 kg of illumination equipment with some small piston engined planes and fluvial boats up to a camp made by El Hombre y la Tierra team on an area of nahanni National Park located at approximately 10 minutes by helicopter from the cliff in which the Valeria Cave is. Ten trips of the helicopter from the base camp to the cavern were needed to transport all the electric and cinematographic elements required for the filming, since Félix and his camera operators knew that to try to solve the enigma it was necessary to light everything with the maximum power feasible and also to shoot and document both the different areas of the cave and every Dall sheep skeleton, perfectly preserved in the Great Chamber of the Valeria Cave thanks to the very low steady temperatures that it has had for thousand years, with a high percentage of its galleries being frozen. The audience is given a clear idea of the difficulties and risks of this operation by the watching of the helicopter flying near the giant cliffs. Due to the rough orography of the ground, the aircraft can´t drop the members of El Hombre y la Tierra team on the entrance of the cave, so they have to reach it through a trail, and once there, the helicopter will unload all the equipment in a total of ten trips. The goings and comings of the helicopter are filmed. Bruce, its experienced Canadian pilot, with outstanding precision, forces his way between the many firs by the Valeria Cave entrance, without touching them, preventing the hanging net net with all the equipment fastened to the chopper with a cable from getting caught on the branches of any of them, and softly takes off all the equipment on a little shelf opening beside the mouth of Grotte Valerie. Highly showy utterly shots made by Alberto Mariano from bottom to top in which we can see the helicopter and the big net linked to the helicopter through a cable, clearly show the risks taken by Bruce, the aircraft pilot, whose trips from the main camp to the mouth of the Valeria Cave have a duration between 10 and 15 minutes. We often see the helicopter blades passing very near the rock walls of the imposing cliff. But the most strenuous thing is still to come: the conveyance of all that equipment (approximately weighing one ton) along 800 meters of the cave (whose total length is almost 2 km) until reaching the Great Chamber of Grotte Valerie, in which the frozen skeletons of 116 Dall sheep are. Everything is checked, specially the 15 large truck batteries (each one featuring a 30 kg weight) that have to make possible the lighting of the cave, whose very low internal temperatures considerably dwindle the duration of any artificial luminous source. All the members of El Hombre y la Tierra team are aware about the dangers of going into the cavern, because all the equipment has to be manually carried taking it on the shoulders with rucksaks under very hard conditions , often through very narrow passages, with a huge cold, on slippery terrain and the hypothermia constantly on the lurk. There´s also the risk that a member of the team could miss or be isolated because of any reason inside the cave, so they decide to mount three camps between its mouth and the Great Room of the Grotte Valerie. Dr. Félix Rodríguez de la Fuente´s face reveals a huge anxiety. It´s perhaps the most difficult adventure in his whole lifetime and he strives after reducing as much as he can the risks for his collaborators. Félix is the first advancing, helped by some of his teammates, who tie down one of the heavy 30 kg truck batteries to the framework of his rucksack, and taking it on his back, he starts walking slowly through the Valeria Cave. Images show vividly the context of extreme roughness of this hauling for a courageous man who in spite of being 51 years old still has huge stamina and boundless perseverance. His example stirs the rest of the team members, who take more truck batteries and other different equipment, advancing slowly behind Félix. Each meter seems an eternity. Most times they must advance very strenuously. After a few minutes, many of them are almost exhausted. Cold has begun making an effect on them, but albeit more and more slowly, they continue to advance moving forward, keeping themselves in contact, as near as possible one another, lighting the areas just in front of them both with individual lanterns attached to their helmets and powerful portable reflectors they grab in one hand. They know that they´re bound to make things as soon as possible, because if they run out of electrical energy to illuminate the Great Room of the Valeria Cave, they won´t be able to film the skeletons of the 116 Dall sheep and its surroundings to try to solve the mystery of their deaths. After a lot of suffering and advancing through the same tunnels and narrow passages crossed by the Dall sheep 2,500 years ago, they mane to reach the Great Room of the Grotte Valerie and the great moment arrives when Alberto Mariano switches on all the big batteries utterly illuminating the place. All of a sudden, they realize that their efforts and risks have been worth: before their eyes appears the skeleton of a young Dall sheep male half buried into the ice and perfectly preserved thanks to the very low temperatures.The floor, completely frozen, has it trapped. The ceiling of this Great Room is a big ice filigree, and Teodoro Roa delights in filming it with his Arri 35 mm movie camera. It´s fossile ice, sporting a blue tonality, which has probably been unchanged for the last 100,000 or 200,000 years. The emotion is unutterable. There are panoramic shots of the place, along with close-ups of specific areas. At a few meters distance from the hall is the accumulation of skeletons, in whose beginning are young males and females, while the adults are mainly in the bottom. They light and film every skeleton in detail. Highly dramatic moments are being lived. This is a flull-fledged Frozen Cemetery of Dall Sheep. Dall sheep usually get into the labyrinths of caves of Nahanni National Park, above all in Winter, looking for warmer temperatures than outside and also to lick the mineral salts contained by the walls of these caverns, going out of them when the circumstances are favourable. Then, What could happen? Which was what killed such a great quantity of these animals? Why the vast majority of them died so close one another in the Great Room of the cave? Which made that not even one of them could escape after going into the Grotte Valerie? We see a large male with its almost intact horns, together with many other skeletons and a vast quantity very well preserved remains of Dall sheep who died in the most various positions and sparsed throughout this big natural crypt. The stress becomes unbearable. The faces of the members of Félix team clearly reveal the shock brought about by everything they´re watching and for which they are not able to find an explanation. But a few seconds later, the conundrum denoument comes to an end: the camera is shooting Dr. Félix Rodríguez de la Fuente, who is examining the area of the Frozen Cemetery and its surroundings, when unexpectedly his facial expression changes utterly and becomes visibly affected by something. Dr. Félix Rodríguez de la Fuente, with his typical intuition, experience and ability for the reading of natural grounds, has just solved the mystery of the death of the Grotte Valerie Dall sheep, the terrible reality of what happened there, which he begins to explain in detail. All of a sudeen, there´s an eerie close-up of a female of Dall sheep with its baby, died in a very convulsed and agonizing posture. The mother fought until the last moments, trying to escape and save its baby´s life. This is undoubtedly one of the most dramatic moments in the history of El Hombre y la Tierra series. A FORCE OF THE NATURE A very young Félix Rodríguez de la Fuente the day he beat the 400 m record during the Universitarian Championships held in Valladolid in 1946, when he was 18 years old. We can realize his amazing natural physical strength, his huge width of shoulders and his very powerful muscles. Since his childhood, Dr Félix Rodríguez de la Fuente spent a lot of hours in the countryside, always trying to watch his beloved animals from the shortest feasible distances, and was used to making a lot of kilometers walking or running. It all turned him through years into a formidable athlete featuring great strength and power, complemented by high doses of stamina, resistance to the fatigue and incredible perseverence in everything he did, to such an extent that vast majority of times his collaborators found very difficult to follow his working pace. Dr. Félix Rodríguez de la Fuente seemed to never get tired and always took the biggest risks when the team had to deal with dangerous species, as was apparent during the shooting of the Venezuelan chapters of "El Hombre y La Tierra" in which he was the man grabbing the neck of every giant anaconda. Félix Rodríguez de la Fuente in Kenya speaking with two other naturalists. The tremendous physical strength of Félix Rodríguez de la Fuente is highly visible in this image if we compare for example the width of his arms and legs with the other two men. AN IMPERISHABLE REMEMBRANCE IMPORTANT INSTITUTIONS AND PEOPLE PRESERVING FÉLIX RODRÍGUEZ DE LA FUENTE´S LEGACY - Félix Rodríguez de La Fuente Foundation.- Created in 2004 by the family of the world class naturalist having as an aim to safeguard, projecting and fostering his life, works and legacy, updating it through new projects encouraging the harmony between Man and Earth. It is a private and independent foundation, whose President is Marcelle Genevieve Parmentier. - Marcelle Genevieve Parmentier.- Widow of Félix Rodríguez de la Fuente and President of his Foundation. A woman who deserves the greatest accolades, because she suffered very much with the untimely passing away of his husband, and has endured the elapse of time since 1980 with praiseworthy discretion and elegance, waiting for many years until finding the best moment for the inception of the Félix Rodríguez de la Fuente Foundation. She was the great support of the Maestro until his death, and helped him raise a lot of wolf cubs and birds of prey, specially in his starting years as a naturalist after giving up his work as an odontologist. - Odile Rodríguez de la Fuente.- General Manager of the Félix Rodríguez de la Fuente Foundation and Vicepresident of it. One of the three daughters of Félix Rodríguez de la Fuente. She features a great physical resemblance with his father, also sharing his passion on speaking about nature and wildlife. A key figure in the preservation of Dr. Félix Rodríguez de la Fuente´s remembrance and work, along with the spreading of his scientific, social and environmental bequest. She is a University of Los Angeles (California) Bachellor in Biological Sciencies and Cinema and Television Production, having also specialized on Audiovisual Media in the National Geographic Department in Washington, D.C, where she was working for four years and a half. A great lover of agriculture and the concept of the earth as a living entity. - Alvaro Will.- He´s presently the General Manager of the Félix Rodríguez de la Fuente Foundation. He´s a lawyer specialized in International Relations and Law, Information Technologies and Cooperation to Development, also sporting know-how in TIC and Third Sector. Antón García Abril.- Great composer and creator of the mythical music of El Hombre y La Tierra series, maybe the most impressive and awesome soundtrack ever made in the world for a documentary film on wildlife and nature. A key figure in the life of Felix Rodriguez de la Fuente, both were great friends and went often to the Madrid de Los Austrias area to have lunch. Antón García Abril was present the day of the first projection of the mythical scene of one of the chapters of El Hombre y La Tierra series in which a royal eagle captures a kid on a high cliff and takes it flying a lot of hundreds of meters up to its nest. He saw cry Dr Félix Rodriguez de la Fuente on watching it projected on screen with the original 35 mm Kodak chemical emulsion bobbin in a special room with cinematographic king size screen. Today, thirty years after the demise of the unforgettable Félix Rodríguez de la Fuente, Antón García Abril´s legendary musical score of El Hombre y La Tierra goes on making people feeling under a spell and stopping everything they are making to watch each chapter of this memorable World Heritage TV series (above all in DVD or upscaled Blu-ray, an absolutely dazzling audiovisual experience, which we can confirm) shot in 35 mm with David O´Selznick quality parameters). This is in my viewpoint a musical feat at the reach of very few. - Miguel Molina.- Camera operator belonging to the team of El Hombre y la Tierra and a survivor of the aerial accident of Alaska on March 14, 1980 in which the pilot Warren Dawson, Dr. Félix Rodríguez de la Fuente, the camera operator Teodoro Roa (then one of the best specialists in the world on filming of wild animals) and the camera operator assistant Alberto Mariano Huéscar died instantly. Miguel Molina and Dr. Rodríguez de la Fuente had arrived at Alaska on March 11, 1980, while Teodoro Roa and Alberto Mariano Huéscar had been there since February 28, 2010, shooting the Iditarod Sledge Dog Race. On March 13, 1980, Dr. Félix Rodríguez de la Fuente, Teodoro Roa, Alberto Mariano Huéscar, Miguel Molina and the pilots of the two El Hombre y la Tierra team aircraft had dinner together. Tony, one of the pilots, told Miguel Molina that he had a pawl of the crankshaft loosing oil, and he had had to be replacing it, so there wasn´t any of it left. The next day, March 14 1980, was Dr. Félix Rodríguez de la Fuente´s birthday, and the El Hombre y la Tierra team prepared to travel on board of two hydroplanes. In the first one, the USA pilot Warren Dawson (on front left of the cabin), Félix Rodríguez de la Fuente (who went on the right of the pilot), Teodoro Roa (behind on the left) and Alberto Mariano Huéscar (behind on the right) took off. In the second place, an Eskimo TV aircraft, also painted in orange color, took off, and thirdly, the hydroplane manned by the pilot Tony and Miguel Molina on his right took off. A few minutes later, when they went flying over the iced surface, both of them saw the first aircraft in which the pilot Warren Dawson, Dr. Félix Rodríguez de la Fuente, Teodoro Roa and Alberto Mariano Huéscar went on board, falling spinning until crashing against the frozen land, after the hydroplane had lost one of their floats. During the thirty years that have elapsed since then, Miguel Molina has been in a discreet and elegant second place, though he was one of the few persons who shared with Dr. Félix Rodríguez de la Fuente his last hours of life. - Angela Minaya.- Direction Secretary of El Hombre y La Tierra. A woman featuring great working capacity, mental strength and thoroughness in everything she did. Dr Felix Rodriguez de La Fuente trusted utterly on her. She travelled with the mythical team that shot the 18 chapters of Venezuela belonging to El Hombre y la Tierra series, and was very near Felix when the huge anaconda was about to tear his head apart. She was very impressed on watching live the Amazonic jungle remote tribes, and still remembers the tremendous working pace of Felix, and his amazing constant scheming of ideas. Angela Minaya was a key figure in the huge international success of El Hombre y La Tierra series all over the world (it was broadcast in 30 countries and even reached number one audience of documentary nature and fauna programmes in USA) and has remained in a very discreet role through the thirty years elapsed since the death of the Maestro. She also implemented a significant labor throughout the many months spent by El Hombre y la Tierra team in the area of Pelegrina, Guadalajara (raising a group of wolf cubs which had been found inside a wolf lair, until they became adults) on a camp located in the glen of the River Dulce, using a Olivetti Lettera 32 typewriter to type everything Dr. Félix Rodríguez de la Fuente told her, as well as jotting down a lot of data of all kind. Probably a number of important things wouldn´t have been feasible, specially in the moments when people were on the brink of exhaustion because of Felix´s boundless energy and constant toil, without Angela Minaya, who endured the pressure and transmitted strength to the rest of members of the team. - Luis Miguel Domínguez Mencía.- Prestigious naturalist and director of documentary films, who was one of the direct collaborators of Félix Rodríguez de la Fuente during seventies. He´s widely known for having made a lot of TV series on nature and animals, though he has also implemented a significant work in radio, conducting programs like Al Cabo de La Calle, El Ciempies, or Todos Somos Naturaleza. Likewise, he takes part currently in some broadcasts of the Spanish TV Cuatro Channel Fourth Millennium directed by Iker Jiménez. His last production is Treasure from the South, a four chapter documentary series on the fauna and flora of Andalusia and his Mediterranean climate. He has also been a member of the directive board of entities like Adena/WWF, Greenpeace, Survival International and WATU, having excelled as a great advocate of animals in dange of extinctions like the Iberian wolf. He is a great admirer of Félix Rodríguez de la Fuente and a man who feels himself utterly identified with Félix´s philosophy of life and his naturalist and conservationist message. Besides, he has won a lot of important prices related to nature, research and science:National Prize of Arts and Popular Traditions (1987); Prize to the best scientific TV series (1994); Prize Jules Verne to the Best Divulgative Series (1994); Honour Accesit of the Prince of Asturias Prize for Young Researchers (1978 and 1983); Prize of the Federation of Friends of the Earth (1988), Prize Healthy Life (2003), etc. His main written books are: Guide of the Street Fauna; Walking through Lower Manzanares River; Our Land, Our Life; Do you want to be a naturalist?And within his TV series we must underline: Vietnam, Life After Death; Amazonia, Last Call; Natural Spaces; Live the Way; Discover Your Gulches; Treasures From The South; Going to the Countryside without lunch; The naturalist at home; The Show of the Records; The Sight of Anselmo; The Friend Bull: Naturalists, etc. He was also the creator in 2001of the Exotarium, the only center existing in Spain devoted to the gathering, lodging and care of exotic animals, which held around 500 different animals and existed until 2009. Juan Carlos del Olmo.- Prestigious naturalist and currently General Secretary of WWF Spain, a position he holds since 1996. He is another great admirer of Felix Rodriguez de la Fuente, who exerted a huge influence in his life, in the same way as happens with all of his enthusiasts. He´s a skilful ringer of birds and has collaborated since his youth with a lot of conservationist organizations,. having also made a number of documentary films for TVE, and is one of the flagships of the Climate Coalition of thirty organizations belonging to various scopes asking for a basic agreement independently on the political parties in power in order to build a common fighting way against the global heating menacing our planet. He is likewise a world class expert on the effect of the deforestation for the presently uncontrolled cultivation of soybean, stating that if we don´t begin outlining mechanisms to stop that bias, establishing criteria to decide the areas where soybean can be grown or not, there will be a moment in which not even a tree will exist either in Amazonia, the Chaco or in the rest of South America, without forgetting his concern about the firstly promising biocarburants which have currently become a nightmare, because top priority must be to guarantee the sustainable origin of raw materials. - Benigno Varillas.- Writer by trade and author of the excellent authorized biography of Félix Rodríguez de la Fuente, a colossal 761 pages book encompassing tons of very interesting data and details of all kind related to the life of the great Spanish naturalist and maker of documentary films on animals. A lot of years of hard research and love for Félix´s legacy have been necessary for the launching of this indispensable work. Throughout almost thirty years elapsed since Félix Rodríguez de la Fuente´s death in 1980, Genevieve Parmentier waited patietnly and wisely until the circumstances allowed the inception of the Félix Rodríguez de la Fuente Foundation, having also kept with great foresight more than 2,000 original documents and letters written by Félix, together with 400 recordings made by him with his voice and broadcast by Radio Nacional de España during the second half of sixties and many tapes of lectures, press conferences and interviews, an huge legacy greatly unknown by the public and whose access was granted to Benigno Varillas by Odile Rodríguez de la Fuente, Félix Daughter and a key figure as to the spreading and knowledge of the thought and work of the world famous great Spanish naturalist and conservationist. The book Félix Rodríguez de la Fuente: His Life, A Message for the Future, launched into market in March 2010 and which has unveiled plenty of unknown till now information and data, has settled a before and an after in the knowledge on his figure, life philosophy, future projects, revolutionary environmental ideas, immense scientific and cultural equipment, and even the pioneering vision of internet and the global society of knowledge together with a highly extensive concept of the cosmos and how to focus the future of human being as a species, all of which was in the mind of this extraordinary man who was Félix Rodríguez de la Fuente. He also founded the environmental journalism section of El País newspaper, in which he worked between 1973 and 1978. Founder and Director of Quercus ( the senior magazine in Spain devoted to the observation, defense and study of Nature) between 1981 and 2001. He edited the Memoirs of José Antonio Valverde (an eminent biologist and naturalist who was one of the inspiration sources and a personal friend of Félix Rodríguez de la Fuente) between 2003 and 2006. Columnist of the Sunday supplement of El Mundo newspaper in 1995. Founder of the Association of Friends of Nature in 1972 and of Greenpeace Spain in 1984. National Prize of Environment in 1989. - Joaquín Araujo.- A prestigious naturalist who was a collaborator of Félix Rodríguez de la Fuente during his six last years of life between 1975 and 1980. He has written more than 150 books on nature, national parks, Mediterranean woods, various species of animals, the water as key ingredient of life, the rural world and culture, the Pyrenees, ecology, Lanzarote, the valley of La Rioja, natural spaces of Extremadura, the Royal Eagle, protected species, the world of the jaguar, how to speak to the chuldren about Nature and Environment, etc. He´s the Commissar of the Félix Rodríguez de la Fuente Itinerant Exhibition which has gathered audiovisual documents on the work made by the world famous Spanish naturalist died in 1980 since October 2005. He is one of the most prominent experts on Wildlife and nature in Spain, having been bestowed a lot of prizes and awards during his professional background, among which highlight: - Healthy Life Award to the best article on biological agriculture (1983). - Special Prize of the 5th International Cinema Contest of Madrid 1984 to the best script for the programs " The Oak Grove" and " The Grazing Ground " of the Noah´s Ark TV series. - Prize of the Cinema Festival of Riga (Latvia) 1984 for the Noah´s Ark. - Prize Global 500 for divulgative labor United Nations 1991 in favour of environment, which was awarded to him by the King of Sweden on June, 5 of that year. This is a very important award, which was previously granted among others to Sir David Attenborough and Jacques Cousteau. - Environmental Award 1993 of Madrid Town Hall for the best press labour as editor of the Biosphere Supplement of Diario 16 newspaper. - Adenex Award 1995 for his work as a creator of the Vento Biological Reserve in Extremadura. - Finalist of the Espasa Calpe Essay Prize for his book " XXI: Century of the Ecology ". - National Prize of Environment of Communication Media 1997. - Prize 2000 as recognition to the best Spanish TV series of all time for El Hombre y la Tierra, whose alma mater was Félix Rodríguez de la Fuente, a TV series which was finished by Joaquín Araujo after his demise, as author of the further texts and scripts. - Prize of the National Congress of Environment 2000 for his trajectory in communication media. - Nomination for the Hollywood Oscar 2003 and Goya Prizes of that year as a director of the Spanish team in the Jacques´s Perrin film " Nomads of the Wind " (2002). - Ondas Prize 2003 as a member of the program directed by Pepa Fernández. - BBVA Foundation Prize 2006 for his spreding labor regarding the values of biodiversity. He is also author of an important biography on Félix Rodríguez de la Fuente, written in 1990: "The Voice of Nature: The Biography of Félix Rodríguez de la Fuente". Salvat Editorial. - Miguel Pou Vázquez.- President of the ONG Félix Project and the Federation of Associations of Félix Rodríguez de la Fuente. He is a zoologist and naturalist who has won a lot of awards, amongst them the World Fund Prize for the Wild Life (1983), the Second Prize of the Prince of Asturias for Young Investigators (1984), the Second Prize Holland of Phillips (1986) with an astounding research of 2,200 pages which attained the creation of the Natural Reserves of the Llobregat River Delta. He is also a Professor of Communication and writer. He has been a lot of years implementing a dream come true: the creation of the greatest database in the world on Félix Rodríguez de la Fuente. He has written three great books on Félix Rodríguez de la Fuente, titled "Félix Rodríguez de la Fuente: The Man and His Life", "Félix, The Animals´ Friend" (an improved revision and enlargement of the previous one) and "The Wonderful Childhood of Félix Rodríguez de la Fuente". - Carlos Sanz.- Prestigious field biologist, naturer and wildlife photographer and documentary film maker. In 1975, being a Biological Sciencies student, he began collaborating with Félix Rodríguez de la Fuente in different chapters of El Hombre y la Tierra, helping Félix to raise a five wolf cubs brood whose mother had been shot in Villadiego (Burgos). During the shooting of the filming of the three mythical chapters on Night Prey Birds of El Hombre y la Tierra, Carlos Sanz, already then a great photography lover, used Yashica TL Electro-X (with Yashinon-DX primes) and Nikon F2 Photomic (with Nikkor S.C Auto 50 mm f/1.4 to make pictures of eagle owls, long-eared owls, tawny owls, screech owls, barn owls and little owls, mainly of their bright eyes, of their massive earlaps, of their sharp talons protected by the feathers, of the velvety flight feathers with its lacking fringe leading edge to soften the air friction, enabling a noiseless flight, etc. Likewise, Carlos Sanz was a collaborator of Félix Rodríguez de la Fuente using the short wave Falconer RB-4 radio receptor which received the signals sent by a minute short wave emitter which had previously been placed inside the hard hollow stems of the wing feathers of each night preying bird by Félix and Aurelio Pérex for their spotting and tracking up to distances of 8 kilometers. Having a great passion for the wolf, Carlos Sanz had in Félix Rodríguez de la Fuente an admired teacher who was a key factor in his decision of becoming a biologist, and during these thirty years gone by since Félix death, he has bred some wolf packs, living with them and being integrated within their social structures as one of their members. He has photographed the most various species of the Iberian Fauna: the lynx, the gold eagle, the woodpecker, the dormouse and many more, including the genet, of which he´s a significant expert. Likewise, his work as a recognized documentalist working as an adviser, script writer, biologist and field naturalist has included El Hombre y la Tierra, Naturaleza Ibérica, La Marisma y el Llano, De Polo a Polo, Enclave Verde, Madrid: Ritmo Salvaje, La Ruta Alternativa, Las Montañas del Lobo, La España Salvaje, etc. He was director and script writer of the tv series Pacto con Lobos. Creator of the Zoological Center Carlos Sanz Wolf Productions, in which a lot of scenes on the intimate life of the Iberian wolf were shot for more than 10 years, including the birth of a litter of wolves inside a wolf lair, it all complemented with images on various social and cultural aspects and measures carried out in Spain for the preservation of this species. On October 1, 2006, Carlos Sanz reached the Spanish TV audience record of that year, with two millions of viewers during the first day of broadcast of the two chapters The Iberian Wolf and Its World and Legend and Reality of the Iberian World.Coauthor of the book Friend Wolf with Julio García Robles in 2001. He has also been author of excellent photographic reportages for the magazines Periplo, Natura, Ambienta, Biológica, etc. He owns a very comprehensive photographic archive on fauna, flora, landscapes and human aspects of Spain and America. Prize 2008 EDC Natura for the preservation of Nature. Prize 2008 Panda WWF/ADENA of Environmental Communication awarded to his itinerant Friend Wolf exhibition. After the passing away of Félix Rodríguez de la Fuente in 1980, Carlos Sanz has been a very important naturalist in the preservation of the Iberian Wolf species and the spreading and knowledge on this species. - Miguel Delibes de Castro.- Eminent biologist, son of the world class writer Miguel Delibes. He was the Director of the Biological Station of Doñana Park for twelve years. He is currently the world´s greatest authority on the Iberian Lynx, one of the most beautiful animals on earth. He made an astounding doctoral thesis in 1977 on the trophic ecology of the Iberian Lynx and has developed an extensive labor as a member of the International Union for the Conservation of Nature, working in different research groups in Spain, Argentina and Mexico, being also an advisor during the 1992 Rio Environmental Summit on Biodiversity. He is President of the Spanish Society for the Preservation and Study of Mammals, having made a wide range of field works and scientific studies appearing in many books and articles written by him, and he is considered nowadays an international level biologist. He is currently the Director of Ecology of Carnivores of the Doñana Biological Station, where he studies the Iberian Lynx within the programmes for preserving this endangered species. He started his professional activity in late sixties, collaborating with Félix Rodríguez de la Fuente as a redactor of the extraordinary Encyclopedia Salvat of the Fauna. - Carlos de Prada.- Naturalist, journalist and writer. A great expert on all kind of topics related with Fauna and Nature. He´s taken part very actively in a wide range of both TV and radio programs devoted to wildlife, has also written a lot of books and countruyside guides. He has been a great admirer of Felix Rodriguez de la Fuente since his childhood, and has spoken about his figure in many debates and broadcast spaces. - Miguel Ledo.- He´s a Superior Technician in Audiovisual Productions. Another great admirer of Dr. Felix Rodriguez de la Fuente. He has worked for different televisions, but descovered his true vocation thanks to the documentary series España en la Vereda along the journalist and naturalist Carlos de Prada, also being a lover of nature, fauna, and wild flora since his childhood. He´s often spoken on the huge historical significance of Felix Rodriguez de la Fuente in a lot of lectures, programmes and debates. - Manolo Peña.- An expert sound technician and collaborator of Félix Rodríguez de la Fuente in a number of chapters of El Hombre y la Tierra. He made from inside a 3 meter high hide, by means of a professional reel to reel Nagra III NP monophonic tape recorder and some microphones located on various areas of a wood, the recordings of the sounds emitted by different night prey birds and rodents (the former ones standing still to spot their preys through the ear since they´re practically invisible at night, and the latter ones trying to feed themselves making the least possible noise and movement not to be detected) during the chapters of El Hombre y la Tierra dealing withthe acoustic war between eagle owls, long-eared owls, tawny owls, screech owls, barn owls, little owls, etc, and mice, dormice, rabbits, etc, in the middle of an almost utter darkness. - Antonio TorreblancA.- An expert sound technician and collaborator of Félix Rodríguez de la Fuente in a number of chapters of El Hombre y la Tierra, registering natural ambients with the professional reel to reel Nagra 4.2 monophonic tape recorder, obtaining top-notch quality hi-fi sound. - Manuel Barroso.- An expert sound technician and collaborator of Félix Rodríguez de la Fuente in a number of chapters of El Hombre y la Tierra. - Suso Garzón.- A prestigious naturalist, personal friend of Felix Rodriguez de la Fuente. - Continuadores de Félix Rodríguez de La Fuente.- A praiseworthy oraganization devoted to steadily foster the memory of The Friend of the Animals, striving after making his work and legacy known to new generations of youngsters interested in both the preservation of fauna and the welfare of nature. This remarkable group of Felix Rodriguez de la Fuente enthusiasts have been working for 24 years gathering information on the Maestro, pioneer of the Spanish Ecologism, and had managed to make a gorgeous publication: The Magazine of Felix Followers.They´re currently trying to develop the " Felix Rodriguez de la Fuente Camps " 30 km in the south of Ordesa, with the intention of imparting ecologist awareness as a meeting place of Felix continuers of both Spain and abroad alike. Among other of their aims is the creation of a museum on Dr Felix Rodriguez de la Fuente. - Josechu Lalanda.- Great collaborator of Félix Rodríguez de la Fuente and his main drawer of animals. Félix´s great capacity of description enabled Josechu Lalanda make impressive sketches, something which was clearly shown when he depicted the way in which different predators hunted. - Joan Salvat.- General Director of the Editorial Group Salvat during late sixties and seventies, when Dr. Felix Rodriguez de la Fuente made the world class Encyclopedia Salvat of the World Fauna. - Rafael Onieva.- Still photograph expert. Collaborator of Félix Rodríguez de la Fuente in a lot of chapters of El Hombre y la Tierra, using a wide range of professional equipment: a) Canon F1 with semispot metering and manual focusing Canon FD lenses featuring Brrech Lock mount. This clever choice by Rafael Onieva was instrumental during the chapters of El Hombre y la Tierra filmed in Canadá (Nahanny National Park, Kluane National Park, etc) where very low temperatures are very frequent, because the Canon F1 didn´t need any battery (only for the light meter) and was designed to perfectly endure temperatures between 60º C and -30º C, along with humidity levels of 90º. On the other hand, the Breech Lock special mount of these pre nFD lenses was the best, because it was very similar to a bayonet and enabled to keep the objectives wholly rigid while being attached to the camera, without any loosed spaces anywhere. b) Motorized medium format Hasselblad EL/M with central shutter Carl Zeiss CF lenses. A real luxury, clearly showing the technical level of El Hombre y la Tierra team. Rafael Onieva used this camera in different chapters of El Hombre y la Tierra, both in the Iberian series for example near Pelegrina (Guadalajara) during the breeding of wolves and in the Canadian Wildlife series, for instance in the chapter titled ´ Rescue Operation ´ (DVD 25 of the Divisa Editions collection) dealing on the saving of bald eagles in Yukon River, where he appears using this 6 x 6 cm format camera with a special handle to optimize the handheld shooting and a coupled prism HC3-70. - Carlos de las Heras.- Camera assistant. Collaborator of Félix Rodríguez de la Fuente in a lot of chapters of El Hombre y la Tierra. - Antonio Soubrier.- Camera assistant. Collaborator of Félix Rodríguez de la Fuente in a lot of chapters of El Hombre y la Tierra. - Faustino Ocaña.- Camera assistant. Collaborator of Félix Rodríguez de la Fuente in a lot of chapters of El Hombre y la Tierra. - Pedro Sevilla.- Montage technician. Collaborator of Félix Rodríguez de la Fuente in a lot of chapters of El Hombre y la Tierra. - Miguel Angel Pinto Cebrián and Suso Cubeiro.- Authors of the book The Three Skies, Child Adventures of Félix Rodríguez de la Fuente. - Javier Ceña.- Prestigious naturalist who was a student of Biological Sciences in mid seventies, when he met Félix Rodríguez de la Fuente and became one of his collaborators during the raising of some wolf cubs in Pelegrina (Guadalajara), where he also fed tawny owls. - Herminio Verdú.- Maker of the legendary La Aventura de la Vida radio programmes throughout seven years, between 1973 and 1980, which were broadcast on Thursdays of every week and in which The Maestro got levels of expectation never seen before in Spain, reaching all the boundaries of the Iberian Peninsula, thanks to the portability of little transistor radios, which brought about that he was followed by millions of listeners both in the great cities and villages, and even in the field by agriculturists, cattle breeders and shepherds. He was one of the most deeply affected persons by the death of the Maestro and remembers perfectly the incredible radio live speeches made by Felix Rodriguez de la Fuente without any kind of script, improvising everything with huge levels of accuracy in his words, sporting boundless knowledge and passion and reaching the pith of all the listeners, every day, without exception, something unheard-of till then and which highly probably nobody will be able to emulate in future. - José Laiz Blanco.- Naturalist and collaborator of Félix Rodríguez de la Fuente in a number of chapters of El Hombre y la Tierra. - Fernando L. Rodríguez.- Naturalist and collaborator of Félix Rodríguez de la Fuente in some chapters of El Hombre y la Tierra. - Luis Serrano.- Naturalist and collaborator of Félix Rodríguez de la Fuente. - José Luis Nava.- Naturalist who has performed a significant role after Félix demise in the development and promotion of the Las Hoces del Riaza shelter, one of the most important sanctuaries of the Spanish geography from an ornithologist viewpoint, including a lot of varieties of eagles, vultures and other birds. A stubborn fighter for the salvation of the griffon vulture and hooded vulture in the Iberian Peninsula. - Carlos Llandres.- Prestigious naturalist, collaborator of Félix Rodríguez de la Fuente in different chapters of El Hombre y la Tierra and in the Canadian series The Adventure of Life, directed by Félix.Expert ring installer of the Spanish Society of Ornithology. Collaborator of Periplo and Aire Libre magazines. Director of the Castilla-La Mancha Environment Courses. Professor of Ornithology in the courses of Natural Environment of the Community of Madrid. Director of Guías de Doñana, S.A. Founder and Director of Projects of Madre-Tierra Productora S.L. Director, script writer, producer and maker of a lot of TV series on Iberian and African fauna for TVE, Canal Sur TV, etc. Author of the books on nature and fauna Las Rapaces(1980, WWF), La Perdiz Roja (1985, Fundación J.M.Blanc), Check List of the Birds of Doñana National Park and Border Areas of Cádiz, Huelva and Sevilla (1988, Guías de Doñana), Las Aves de Doñana (1990, Lynx Editions), Sevilla y sus Aves (1996, ZigZag Producciones S.L), etc. - Javier Castroviejo.- President of the Spanish Committee of El Hombre y La Biosfera. He was one of Felix Rodriguez de la Fuente´s collaborators in late sixties and beginnings of seventies as a member of the legendary staff of biologists, naturalists, photographers and drawers who made the historical Encyclopedia Salvat of the Fauna, weekly bought by millions and millions of people for a lot of years through fascicles which were subsequently bound. - Fidel José Fernández.- A personal friend of Félix Rodríguez de la Fuente, with whom he had a steady direct contact between 1972 and 1980. President of the Fund for the Fund for the Refuge of the Hoces del Riaza.. Promoter of the Refuge of Montejo. An outstanding expert in the making of censi of preying birds, storks, herons, etc, specially in Segovia, Burgos and Soria provinces, a task for which he has devoted 35 years of his life. After the death of Félix Rodríguez de la Fuente in 1980, Fidel José Fernández has been a very important figure in the survival of griffon vulture and hooded vulture and different preying birds in Spain, personally supervising the population development of them year after year, and being in permanent contact with mythical WWF Spain guards like Jesús Hernando Iglesias, alma mater of the Refuge of Montejo. - Pedro Retamar.- Author and biographer. He is both a journalist, photographer and specialist traveller on nature and ecotourism. A frequent collaborator of the supplements El Viajero y Tierra of El Pais newspaper and chronicler of the blog "botasvagabundas". He´s likewise author of the illustrated books: Naturaleza Monumental de España, Villas Medievales, Los Rostros del Paisaje Español and Senderos Perdidos (abridging some of his most outstanding reportages published in El Pais. He has made great pictures and reportages on the routes used by Dr Felix Rodriguez de la Fuente to make his legendary documentary films, specially the Cazorla Range in Jaen, where the Maestro filmed unforgettable sequencies of the El Hombre y La Tierra series, on the bellow of the stag on the shores of El Tranco reservoir, the heat of the mountain goat on the ranges of El Pozo and La Cabrilla, and the hunting of kids by royal eagle, which are already a part of the indelible memory of many lovers of nature. FELIX HASN´T DIED Copyright Text and Indicated Photos Jose Manuel Serrano Esparza. LHSA