I was encouraged that many of you read my last blog post, and shared your feelings about being the descendants of slaveholders. That post had over 7,000 views! (Update, 12/2108: Over 25,000 views of that post). At a time when so much ugliness is on display daily in our country, it heartens me that there
I was encouraged that many of you read my last blog post, and shared your feelings about being the descendants of slaveholders. That post had over 7,000 views! (Update, 12/2108: Over 25,000 views of that post). At a time when so much ugliness is on display daily in our country, it heartens me that there
There is a good probability that many of us researching African-American families will find at least one line that was freed before 1865. A Brief History In 1860, there were over 400,000 free blacks in the U.S. This map (from the Schomburg migrations website) shows the numbers of free blacks in each state: Although Northern
OK, I confess that blog title is a little sensationalized. Much of this information becomes well-known to researchers of African-American families over the years. Family research turns many of us into walking, talking, beacons of history. It is an endlessly fascinating subject: epic, tragic and but often inspiring. Points to Remember Nevertheless, here are a few truths to keep in mind during your research. 1. Slavery was vastly different at different times and in different places. An enslaved person’s life in 1780 in Virginia would not look much like an enslaved person’s life in Georgia in 1850. The experience of an enslaved person in a city was different than one in a rural community. Different crops had different labor demands (cotton, rice, tobacco, indigo, sugar). Take the time to learn about the dynamic nature of slavery through Ira Berlin’s masterful book, Many Thousands Gone: The First Two Centuries of Slavery in North America. 2. South America (mainly Brazil) and the Caribbean islands took in most enslaved people from Africa during the African Slave Trade. Of those who came to the North American colonies (roughly 4%), most were here by 1795. That means many descendants of enslaved people have very long histories in this country. Many people descended from the enslaved have lineages that go back over 200 years. African Slave Trade map 3. Most enslaved people had surnames that were known among themselves, even though the white planters in most cases did not record those surnames (look at this amazing exception). The WPA slave interviews, civil war pensions, and freedman’s bank records are sources where you’ll find former slaves mentioning their parent’s entire names. 4. Don’t expect to always find entire families owned by the same person. There will be many instances where the enslaved father is owned by someone other than the owner of his wife and child/children. Library of Congress, LC-USZC4-4574 To find those spouses, check the neighbors of the enslaver. Many enslaved people found spouses on neighboring farms. Very young children, however, were often allowed to stay with their mothers. 5. Our image of enslaved people farming the plantation is incomplete. Slaves were employed in every conceivable occupation. They worked in shipyards and wharves, railroads and steamboats, merchant’s shops, coal mines, iron works, gristmills and sawmills. They worked as maids, seamstresses, tailors, masons, butchers, barbers, and so on. Especially for urban slaves, we need to consider all the ways other than farming they worked. Enslaved barber, John Hope 6. Understand the enormous impact of the domestic slave trade. Cotton exploded in the early 1800s with the invention of Eli Whitney’s cotton gin. Also, the African Slave Trade closed legally in 1808. This became a perfect storm of disaster for enslaved people. Traders and owners sold over one million slaves into the deep south and the expanding southwest. About 1/3 of those sold were children. This had a devastating impact on black families. Note the prevalence of the birthplace of Virginia or Maryland in the 1870 census in the southern states for African-Americans. 7. The enslaved were often bought and sold through slave traders. As they were private businesses, many of the records and receipts of these auction–style purchases do not survive. Slave traders had large networks of contracter-style buyers who roamed through rural areas buying slaves. Also, slaves were purchased from the estate sales of local slaveowners when they died. 8. There were about a half million free blacks in the country at the end of the Civil War. A little bit more than half of them lived in the South. 9. Local whites interacted with the enslaved population. Criminal court records are replete with people playing cards with slaves and selling them things. Slaves were also plied with liquor by their masters and others. Some enslaved people were allowed to make money, selling vegetables or other things they had. 10. Slavery was a negotiated relationship. Yes, masters had the final and violent upper hand. However, the master’s actions could be altered by a slave’s threatening to run away, refusing to do work, refusing to be sold to someone, and so on. Examples of these instances are in numerous entries in planter’s diaries and other sources: “Salley won’t go without her husband so I’ll have to sell him too.” “Joe if you come back home, you may have your choice of master.” “I had to whip Bill today because he would not go with me.” Our ancestors used every tool at their disposal and were not without agency of their own. Some of the ideas above have been documented by slavery scholar Ira Berlin and his team at the Freedmen and Southern Society Project. Tell me, what things have you learned during your research about slavery that surprised you? Robyn I am an engineer by day, but my true passion lies in genealogy. I have been a researcher, writer, and teacher for over twenty years. This blog is where I share family history strategies, resources, tips and advice for all genealogists. I also discuss researching slavery and its aftermath. This lifelong quest has helped me to better know my family’s past. I’ve taken back– reclaimed– some of that lost memory, especially that of my enslaved ancestors. I hope you’ll sign up to receive my posts—if you do, you’ll get a free PDF with some of my favorite tips! And please do share posts that interest you. Post Views: 34,327
Nannie Barnes We cannot assume that anyone marked “mulatto” in a census record had one white parent and one black parent. I have previously discussed that genealogists should know some of the instructions provided to enumerators, and that the changing definitions of race, since it is a social and not a biological construct, should tell us something. The invention of race has created an endless number of thorny problems. Human beings, because we are one species, can’t reliably be categorized. There is no set of genes that appear in only one “group” of people. Of course, appearance alone can’t convey ancestry. And there’s the bothersome little fact that homo sapiens is a pretty horny species. There is no time in human history when populations did not mate and mix with other populations. You go back far enough in time and guess what? You’re “mixed.” An Eyeball Assessment What’s important to know about that mulatto designation is this: it was an eyeball assessment by the census-taker. They did not ask the person what their race or color was. We know this to be true, since many censuses reflect parents and children in the same house categorized differently. Look at these two 1870 Nashville households: Presumably, these are families, but the racial designators are different between parents and children, indicating the enumerator is looking at skin color. Mulatto in the Census In the post-emancipation timeframe, mulatto was a color designation in the 1870, 1880 and 1910, 1920 censuses. It was not a designation in 1900. So if you are wondering why your ancestor was suddenly “black” or “white” in that year, now you know why. By 1930, both black and mulatto categories were replaced with the word “negro.” In 1930’s racial guidance below, pay close attention to what it says about mixed race, Indian, and Mexican individuals: –A person of mixed white and Negro blood should be returned as a Negro, no matter how small the percentage of Negro blood. –Both black and mulatto persons are to be returned as Negroes, without distinction. A person of mixed Indian and Negro blood should be returned a Negro, unless the Indian blood predominates and the status as an Indian is generally accepted in the community –Other mixed races.-Any mixture of white and nonwhite should be reported according to the nonwhite parent. –Practically all Mexican laborers are of a racial mixture difficult to classify. ..all person born in Mexico, or having parents born in Mexico, who are not definitely white, Negro, Indian, Chinese, or Japanese, should be returned as Mexican (“Mex”). In 1940, the guidance stayed the same as above, but now Mexicans were to be returned as white: –Mexicans.-Mexicans are to be regarded as white unless definitely of Indian or other nonwhite race. Uncovering Interracial Unions Sometimes, thorough research can uncover potential interracial unions. As an example, I’ll use an ancestor from my research, Lucy Barnes, whose picture is shown below. She was born free abt. 1848 in Hardin County, Tennessee. Lucy Barnes Holt Lucy Barnes, fathered by a white man herself, gave birth to two interracial children when she was a teenager (ages 15 and 16). Her first son’s name was Joe Doran, and the second Felix Barnes. An 1874 county court record documented Felix’s apprenticeship to a white man named William P. Doran. The record described Felix as: “…the minor child of Lou Barnes (now wife of Saml Holt) said boy being an illegitimate mulatto child.” William Doran’s 1880 census household included Felix Barnes. Though he is initially called Felix Barnes, by the time of the 1920 census, he was using the name Felix Doran. In 1869, Lucy married a black man, Samuel Holt, and had five children with him, which the county court entry above mentions. I also have Lucy’s family bible, which includes her Doran-surnamed sons. William Doran Though what I share above is not all the evidence I’ve collected, it’s reasonable to posit that both Joe and Felix might be the biological children of William P. Doran. While interracial relationships were commonplace, it was not common for the children to carry the surname of the white father. Their surname is a clue. William Doran had a white wife and children, and lived in close proximity to Lucy. His proximity is another clue–he is just a few houses away from Lucy (Louisa) in the 1860 census below. He would have been 38 years old while she was about 14. Ideally, I’d want to find direct male descendants of William and the Doran boys for Y-DNA testing to draw any conclusions. But without it, the evidence is certainly suggestive of an interracial pairing. Closing Thoughts While the “tragic mulatto” became a popular trope, it is so important to understand that these “hidden in plain sight” interracial relationships and children existed all over the South. A Y-DNA test on a direct-line male descendant of the suspected father and progeny provides the best way to document these relationships. Without Y-DNA, many have also used autosomal DNA successfully (including me). Remember, no DNA test shows “% white” or “% black” or any of the other crazy ways folks have contrived to classify our ONE species. The terms “white” and “black” have no biological meaning. DNA tests reflect genetic mutations that are linked to the evolution of our species across continents. In the meantime, we can often still find clues in other sources. Until then, know that the only conclusion we can draw from a mulatto classification in a census is that the person appeared light-skinned to the census taker. Robyn I am an engineer by day, but my true passion lies in genealogy. I have been a researcher, writer, and teacher for over twenty years. This blog is where I share family history strategies, resources, tips and advice for all genealogists. I also discuss researching slavery and its aftermath. This lifelong quest has helped me to better know my family’s past. I’ve taken back– reclaimed– some of that lost memory, especially that of my enslaved ancestors. I hope you’ll sign up to receive my posts—if you do, you’ll get a free PDF with some of my favorite tips! And please do share posts that interest you. Post Views: 43,181
I was encouraged that many of you read my last blog post, and shared your feelings about being the descendants of slaveholders. That post had over 7,000 views! (Update, 12/2108: Over 25,000 views of that post). At a time when so much ugliness is on display daily in our country, it heartens me that there
There is a good probability that many of us researching African-American families will find at least one line that was freed before 1865. A Brief History In 1860, there were over 400,000 free blacks in the U.S. This map (from the Schomburg migrations website) shows the numbers of free blacks in each state: Although Northern
I was encouraged that many of you read my last blog post, and shared your feelings about being the descendants of slaveholders. That post had over 7,000 views! (Update, 12/2108: Over 25,000 views of that post). At a time when so much ugliness is on display daily in our country, it heartens me that there
I was encouraged that many of you read my last blog post, and shared your feelings about being the descendants of slaveholders. That post had over 7,000 views! (Update, 12/2108: Over 25,000 views of that post). At a time when so much ugliness is on display daily in our country, it heartens me that there
I was encouraged that many of you read my last blog post, and shared your feelings about being the descendants of slaveholders. That post had over 7,000 views! (Update, 12/2108: Over 25,000 views of that post). At a time when so much ugliness is on display daily in our country, it heartens me that there
I was encouraged that many of you read my last blog post, and shared your feelings about being the descendants of slaveholders. That post had over 7,000 views! (Update, 12/2108: Over 25,000 views of that post). At a time when so much ugliness is on display daily in our country, it heartens me that there
Nannie Barnes We cannot assume that anyone marked “mulatto” in a census record had one white parent and one black parent. I have previously discussed that genealogists should know some of the instructions provided to enumerators, and that the changing definitions of race, since it is a social and not a biological construct, should tell us something. The invention of race has created an endless number of thorny problems. Human beings, because we are one species, can’t reliably be categorized. There is no set of genes that appear in only one “group” of people. Of course, appearance alone can’t convey ancestry. And there’s the bothersome little fact that homo sapiens is a pretty horny species. There is no time in human history when populations did not mate and mix with other populations. You go back far enough in time and guess what? You’re “mixed.” An Eyeball Assessment What’s important to know about that mulatto designation is this: it was an eyeball assessment by the census-taker. They did not ask the person what their race or color was. We know this to be true, since many censuses reflect parents and children in the same house categorized differently. Look at these two 1870 Nashville households: Presumably, these are families, but the racial designators are different between parents and children, indicating the enumerator is looking at skin color. Mulatto in the Census In the post-emancipation timeframe, mulatto was a color designation in the 1870, 1880 and 1910, 1920 censuses. It was not a designation in 1900. So if you are wondering why your ancestor was suddenly “black” or “white” in that year, now you know why. By 1930, both black and mulatto categories were replaced with the word “negro.” In 1930’s racial guidance below, pay close attention to what it says about mixed race, Indian, and Mexican individuals: –A person of mixed white and Negro blood should be returned as a Negro, no matter how small the percentage of Negro blood. –Both black and mulatto persons are to be returned as Negroes, without distinction. A person of mixed Indian and Negro blood should be returned a Negro, unless the Indian blood predominates and the status as an Indian is generally accepted in the community –Other mixed races.-Any mixture of white and nonwhite should be reported according to the nonwhite parent. –Practically all Mexican laborers are of a racial mixture difficult to classify. ..all person born in Mexico, or having parents born in Mexico, who are not definitely white, Negro, Indian, Chinese, or Japanese, should be returned as Mexican (“Mex”). In 1940, the guidance stayed the same as above, but now Mexicans were to be returned as white: –Mexicans.-Mexicans are to be regarded as white unless definitely of Indian or other nonwhite race. Uncovering Interracial Unions Sometimes, thorough research can uncover potential interracial unions. As an example, I’ll use an ancestor from my research, Lucy Barnes, whose picture is shown below. She was born free abt. 1848 in Hardin County, Tennessee. Lucy Barnes Holt Lucy Barnes, fathered by a white man herself, gave birth to two interracial children when she was a teenager (ages 15 and 16). Her first son’s name was Joe Doran, and the second Felix Barnes. An 1874 county court record documented Felix’s apprenticeship to a white man named William P. Doran. The record described Felix as: “…the minor child of Lou Barnes (now wife of Saml Holt) said boy being an illegitimate mulatto child.” William Doran’s 1880 census household included Felix Barnes. Though he is initially called Felix Barnes, by the time of the 1920 census, he was using the name Felix Doran. In 1869, Lucy married a black man, Samuel Holt, and had five children with him, which the county court entry above mentions. I also have Lucy’s family bible, which includes her Doran-surnamed sons. William Doran Though what I share above is not all the evidence I’ve collected, it’s reasonable to posit that both Joe and Felix might be the biological children of William P. Doran. While interracial relationships were commonplace, it was not common for the children to carry the surname of the white father. Their surname is a clue. William Doran had a white wife and children, and lived in close proximity to Lucy. His proximity is another clue–he is just a few houses away from Lucy (Louisa) in the 1860 census below. He would have been 38 years old while she was about 14. Ideally, I’d want to find direct male descendants of William and the Doran boys for Y-DNA testing to draw any conclusions. But without it, the evidence is certainly suggestive of an interracial pairing. Closing Thoughts While the “tragic mulatto” became a popular trope, it is so important to understand that these “hidden in plain sight” interracial relationships and children existed all over the South. A Y-DNA test on a direct-line male descendant of the suspected father and progeny provides the best way to document these relationships. Without Y-DNA, many have also used autosomal DNA successfully (including me). Remember, no DNA test shows “% white” or “% black” or any of the other crazy ways folks have contrived to classify our ONE species. The terms “white” and “black” have no biological meaning. DNA tests reflect genetic mutations that are linked to the evolution of our species across continents. In the meantime, we can often still find clues in other sources. Until then, know that the only conclusion we can draw from a mulatto classification in a census is that the person appeared light-skinned to the census taker. Robyn I am an engineer by day, but my true passion lies in genealogy. I have been a researcher, writer, and teacher for over twenty years. This blog is where I share family history strategies, resources, tips and advice for all genealogists. I also discuss researching slavery and its aftermath. This lifelong quest has helped me to better know my family’s past. I’ve taken back– reclaimed– some of that lost memory, especially that of my enslaved ancestors. I hope you’ll sign up to receive my posts—if you do, you’ll get a free PDF with some of my favorite tips! And please do share posts that interest you. Post Views: 43,063
OK, I confess that blog title is a little sensationalized. Much of this information becomes well-known to researchers of African-American families over the years. Family research turns many of us into walking, talking, beacons of history. It is an endlessly fascinating subject: epic, tragic and but often inspiring. Points to Remember Nevertheless, here are a few truths to keep in mind during your research. 1. Slavery was vastly different at different times and in different places. An enslaved person’s life in 1780 in Virginia would not look much like an enslaved person’s life in Georgia in 1850. The experience of an enslaved person in a city was different than one in a rural community. Different crops had different labor demands (cotton, rice, tobacco, indigo, sugar). Take the time to learn about the dynamic nature of slavery through Ira Berlin’s masterful book, Many Thousands Gone: The First Two Centuries of Slavery in North America. 2. South America (mainly Brazil) and the Caribbean islands took in most enslaved people from Africa during the African Slave Trade. Of those who came to the North American colonies (roughly 4%), most were here by 1795. That means many descendants of enslaved people have very long histories in this country. Many people descended from the enslaved have lineages that go back over 200 years. African Slave Trade map 3. Most enslaved people had surnames that were known among themselves, even though the white planters in most cases did not record those surnames (look at this amazing exception). The WPA slave interviews, civil war pensions, and freedman’s bank records are sources where you’ll find former slaves mentioning their parent’s entire names. 4. Don’t expect to always find entire families owned by the same person. There will be many instances where the enslaved father is owned by someone other than the owner of his wife and child/children. Library of Congress, LC-USZC4-4574 To find those spouses, check the neighbors of the enslaver. Many enslaved people found spouses on neighboring farms. Very young children, however, were often allowed to stay with their mothers. 5. Our image of enslaved people farming the plantation is incomplete. Slaves were employed in every conceivable occupation. They worked in shipyards and wharves, railroads and steamboats, merchant’s shops, coal mines, iron works, gristmills and sawmills. They worked as maids, seamstresses, tailors, masons, butchers, barbers, and so on. Especially for urban slaves, we need to consider all the ways other than farming they worked. Enslaved barber, John Hope 6. Understand the enormous impact of the domestic slave trade. Cotton exploded in the early 1800s with the invention of Eli Whitney’s cotton gin. Also, the African Slave Trade closed legally in 1808. This became a perfect storm of disaster for enslaved people. Traders and owners sold over one million slaves into the deep south and the expanding southwest. About 1/3 of those sold were children. This had a devastating impact on black families. Note the prevalence of the birthplace of Virginia or Maryland in the 1870 census in the southern states for African-Americans. 7. The enslaved were often bought and sold through slave traders. As they were private businesses, many of the records and receipts of these auction–style purchases do not survive. Slave traders had large networks of contracter-style buyers who roamed through rural areas buying slaves. Also, slaves were purchased from the estate sales of local slaveowners when they died. 8. There were about a half million free blacks in the country at the end of the Civil War. A little bit more than half of them lived in the South. 9. Local whites interacted with the enslaved population. Criminal court records are replete with people playing cards with slaves and selling them things. Slaves were also plied with liquor by their masters and others. Some enslaved people were allowed to make money, selling vegetables or other things they had. 10. Slavery was a negotiated relationship. Yes, masters had the final and violent upper hand. However, the master’s actions could be altered by a slave’s threatening to run away, refusing to do work, refusing to be sold to someone, and so on. Examples of these instances are in numerous entries in planter’s diaries and other sources: “Salley won’t go without her husband so I’ll have to sell him too.” “Joe if you come back home, you may have your choice of master.” “I had to whip Bill today because he would not go with me.” Our ancestors used every tool at their disposal and were not without agency of their own. Some of the ideas above have been documented by slavery scholar Ira Berlin and his team at the Freedmen and Southern Society Project. Tell me, what things have you learned during your research about slavery that surprised you? Robyn I am an engineer by day, but my true passion lies in genealogy. I have been a researcher, writer, and teacher for over twenty years. This blog is where I share family history strategies, resources, tips and advice for all genealogists. I also discuss researching slavery and its aftermath. This lifelong quest has helped me to better know my family’s past. I’ve taken back– reclaimed– some of that lost memory, especially that of my enslaved ancestors. I hope you’ll sign up to receive my posts—if you do, you’ll get a free PDF with some of my favorite tips! And please do share posts that interest you. Post Views: 34,327
OK, I confess that blog title is a little sensationalized. Much of this information becomes well-known to researchers of African-American families over the years. Family research turns many of us into walking, talking, beacons of history. It is an endlessly fascinating subject: epic, tragic and but often inspiring. Points to Remember Nevertheless, here are a few truths to keep in mind during your research. 1. Slavery was vastly different at different times and in different places. An enslaved person’s life in 1780 in Virginia would not look much like an enslaved person’s life in Georgia in 1850. The experience of an enslaved person in a city was different than one in a rural community. Different crops had different labor demands (cotton, rice, tobacco, indigo, sugar). Take the time to learn about the dynamic nature of slavery through Ira Berlin’s masterful book, Many Thousands Gone: The First Two Centuries of Slavery in North America. 2. South America (mainly Brazil) and the Caribbean islands took in most enslaved people from Africa during the African Slave Trade. Of those who came to the North American colonies (roughly 4%), most were here by 1795. That means many descendants of enslaved people have very long histories in this country. Many people descended from the enslaved have lineages that go back over 200 years. African Slave Trade map 3. Most enslaved people had surnames that were known among themselves, even though the white planters in most cases did not record those surnames (look at this amazing exception). The WPA slave interviews, civil war pensions, and freedman’s bank records are sources where you’ll find former slaves mentioning their parent’s entire names. 4. Don’t expect to always find entire families owned by the same person. There will be many instances where the enslaved father is owned by someone other than the owner of his wife and child/children. Library of Congress, LC-USZC4-4574 To find those spouses, check the neighbors of the enslaver. Many enslaved people found spouses on neighboring farms. Very young children, however, were often allowed to stay with their mothers. 5. Our image of enslaved people farming the plantation is incomplete. Slaves were employed in every conceivable occupation. They worked in shipyards and wharves, railroads and steamboats, merchant’s shops, coal mines, iron works, gristmills and sawmills. They worked as maids, seamstresses, tailors, masons, butchers, barbers, and so on. Especially for urban slaves, we need to consider all the ways other than farming they worked. Enslaved barber, John Hope 6. Understand the enormous impact of the domestic slave trade. Cotton exploded in the early 1800s with the invention of Eli Whitney’s cotton gin. Also, the African Slave Trade closed legally in 1808. This became a perfect storm of disaster for enslaved people. Traders and owners sold over one million slaves into the deep south and the expanding southwest. About 1/3 of those sold were children. This had a devastating impact on black families. Note the prevalence of the birthplace of Virginia or Maryland in the 1870 census in the southern states for African-Americans. 7. The enslaved were often bought and sold through slave traders. As they were private businesses, many of the records and receipts of these auction–style purchases do not survive. Slave traders had large networks of contracter-style buyers who roamed through rural areas buying slaves. Also, slaves were purchased from the estate sales of local slaveowners when they died. 8. There were about a half million free blacks in the country at the end of the Civil War. A little bit more than half of them lived in the South. 9. Local whites interacted with the enslaved population. Criminal court records are replete with people playing cards with slaves and selling them things. Slaves were also plied with liquor by their masters and others. Some enslaved people were allowed to make money, selling vegetables or other things they had. 10. Slavery was a negotiated relationship. Yes, masters had the final and violent upper hand. However, the master’s actions could be altered by a slave’s threatening to run away, refusing to do work, refusing to be sold to someone, and so on. Examples of these instances are in numerous entries in planter’s diaries and other sources: “Salley won’t go without her husband so I’ll have to sell him too.” “Joe if you come back home, you may have your choice of master.” “I had to whip Bill today because he would not go with me.” Our ancestors used every tool at their disposal and were not without agency of their own. Some of the ideas above have been documented by slavery scholar Ira Berlin and his team at the Freedmen and Southern Society Project. Tell me, what things have you learned during your research about slavery that surprised you? Robyn I am an engineer by day, but my true passion lies in genealogy. I have been a researcher, writer, and teacher for over twenty years. This blog is where I share family history strategies, resources, tips and advice for all genealogists. I also discuss researching slavery and its aftermath. This lifelong quest has helped me to better know my family’s past. I’ve taken back– reclaimed– some of that lost memory, especially that of my enslaved ancestors. I hope you’ll sign up to receive my posts—if you do, you’ll get a free PDF with some of my favorite tips! And please do share posts that interest you. Post Views: 34,327
OK, I confess that blog title is a little sensationalized. Much of this information becomes well-known to researchers of African-American families over the years. Family research turns many of us into walking, talking, beacons of history. It is an endlessly fascinating subject: epic, tragic and but often inspiring. Points to Remember Nevertheless, here are a few truths to keep in mind during your research. 1. Slavery was vastly different at different times and in different places. An enslaved person’s life in 1780 in Virginia would not look much like an enslaved person’s life in Georgia in 1850. The experience of an enslaved person in a city was different than one in a rural community. Different crops had different labor demands (cotton, rice, tobacco, indigo, sugar). Take the time to learn about the dynamic nature of slavery through Ira Berlin’s masterful book, Many Thousands Gone: The First Two Centuries of Slavery in North America. 2. South America (mainly Brazil) and the Caribbean islands took in most enslaved people from Africa during the African Slave Trade. Of those who came to the North American colonies (roughly 4%), most were here by 1795. That means many descendants of enslaved people have very long histories in this country. Many people descended from the enslaved have lineages that go back over 200 years. African Slave Trade map 3. Most enslaved people had surnames that were known among themselves, even though the white planters in most cases did not record those surnames (look at this amazing exception). The WPA slave interviews, civil war pensions, and freedman’s bank records are sources where you’ll find former slaves mentioning their parent’s entire names. 4. Don’t expect to always find entire families owned by the same person. There will be many instances where the enslaved father is owned by someone other than the owner of his wife and child/children. Library of Congress, LC-USZC4-4574 To find those spouses, check the neighbors of the enslaver. Many enslaved people found spouses on neighboring farms. Very young children, however, were often allowed to stay with their mothers. 5. Our image of enslaved people farming the plantation is incomplete. Slaves were employed in every conceivable occupation. They worked in shipyards and wharves, railroads and steamboats, merchant’s shops, coal mines, iron works, gristmills and sawmills. They worked as maids, seamstresses, tailors, masons, butchers, barbers, and so on. Especially for urban slaves, we need to consider all the ways other than farming they worked. Enslaved barber, John Hope 6. Understand the enormous impact of the domestic slave trade. Cotton exploded in the early 1800s with the invention of Eli Whitney’s cotton gin. Also, the African Slave Trade closed legally in 1808. This became a perfect storm of disaster for enslaved people. Traders and owners sold over one million slaves into the deep south and the expanding southwest. About 1/3 of those sold were children. This had a devastating impact on black families. Note the prevalence of the birthplace of Virginia or Maryland in the 1870 census in the southern states for African-Americans. 7. The enslaved were often bought and sold through slave traders. As they were private businesses, many of the records and receipts of these auction–style purchases do not survive. Slave traders had large networks of contracter-style buyers who roamed through rural areas buying slaves. Also, slaves were purchased from the estate sales of local slaveowners when they died. 8. There were about a half million free blacks in the country at the end of the Civil War. A little bit more than half of them lived in the South. 9. Local whites interacted with the enslaved population. Criminal court records are replete with people playing cards with slaves and selling them things. Slaves were also plied with liquor by their masters and others. Some enslaved people were allowed to make money, selling vegetables or other things they had. 10. Slavery was a negotiated relationship. Yes, masters had the final and violent upper hand. However, the master’s actions could be altered by a slave’s threatening to run away, refusing to do work, refusing to be sold to someone, and so on. Examples of these instances are in numerous entries in planter’s diaries and other sources: “Salley won’t go without her husband so I’ll have to sell him too.” “Joe if you come back home, you may have your choice of master.” “I had to whip Bill today because he would not go with me.” Our ancestors used every tool at their disposal and were not without agency of their own. Some of the ideas above have been documented by slavery scholar Ira Berlin and his team at the Freedmen and Southern Society Project. Tell me, what things have you learned during your research about slavery that surprised you? Robyn I am an engineer by day, but my true passion lies in genealogy. I have been a researcher, writer, and teacher for over twenty years. This blog is where I share family history strategies, resources, tips and advice for all genealogists. I also discuss researching slavery and its aftermath. This lifelong quest has helped me to better know my family’s past. I’ve taken back– reclaimed– some of that lost memory, especially that of my enslaved ancestors. I hope you’ll sign up to receive my posts—if you do, you’ll get a free PDF with some of my favorite tips! And please do share posts that interest you. Post Views: 34,327
OK, I confess that blog title is a little sensationalized. Much of this information becomes well-known to researchers of African-American families over the years. Family research turns many of us into walking, talking, beacons of history. It is an endlessly fascinating subject: epic, tragic and but often inspiring. Points to Remember Nevertheless, here are a few truths to keep in mind during your research. 1. Slavery was vastly different at different times and in different places. An enslaved person’s life in 1780 in Virginia would not look much like an enslaved person’s life in Georgia in 1850. The experience of an enslaved person in a city was different than one in a rural community. Different crops had different labor demands (cotton, rice, tobacco, indigo, sugar). Take the time to learn about the dynamic nature of slavery through Ira Berlin’s masterful book, Many Thousands Gone: The First Two Centuries of Slavery in North America. 2. South America (mainly Brazil) and the Caribbean islands took in most enslaved people from Africa during the African Slave Trade. Of those who came to the North American colonies (roughly 4%), most were here by 1795. That means many descendants of enslaved people have very long histories in this country. Many people descended from the enslaved have lineages that go back over 200 years. African Slave Trade map 3. Most enslaved people had surnames that were known among themselves, even though the white planters in most cases did not record those surnames (look at this amazing exception). The WPA slave interviews, civil war pensions, and freedman’s bank records are sources where you’ll find former slaves mentioning their parent’s entire names. 4. Don’t expect to always find entire families owned by the same person. There will be many instances where the enslaved father is owned by someone other than the owner of his wife and child/children. Library of Congress, LC-USZC4-4574 To find those spouses, check the neighbors of the enslaver. Many enslaved people found spouses on neighboring farms. Very young children, however, were often allowed to stay with their mothers. 5. Our image of enslaved people farming the plantation is incomplete. Slaves were employed in every conceivable occupation. They worked in shipyards and wharves, railroads and steamboats, merchant’s shops, coal mines, iron works, gristmills and sawmills. They worked as maids, seamstresses, tailors, masons, butchers, barbers, and so on. Especially for urban slaves, we need to consider all the ways other than farming they worked. Enslaved barber, John Hope 6. Understand the enormous impact of the domestic slave trade. Cotton exploded in the early 1800s with the invention of Eli Whitney’s cotton gin. Also, the African Slave Trade closed legally in 1808. This became a perfect storm of disaster for enslaved people. Traders and owners sold over one million slaves into the deep south and the expanding southwest. About 1/3 of those sold were children. This had a devastating impact on black families. Note the prevalence of the birthplace of Virginia or Maryland in the 1870 census in the southern states for African-Americans. 7. The enslaved were often bought and sold through slave traders. As they were private businesses, many of the records and receipts of these auction–style purchases do not survive. Slave traders had large networks of contracter-style buyers who roamed through rural areas buying slaves. Also, slaves were purchased from the estate sales of local slaveowners when they died. 8. There were about a half million free blacks in the country at the end of the Civil War. A little bit more than half of them lived in the South. 9. Local whites interacted with the enslaved population. Criminal court records are replete with people playing cards with slaves and selling them things. Slaves were also plied with liquor by their masters and others. Some enslaved people were allowed to make money, selling vegetables or other things they had. 10. Slavery was a negotiated relationship. Yes, masters had the final and violent upper hand. However, the master’s actions could be altered by a slave’s threatening to run away, refusing to do work, refusing to be sold to someone, and so on. Examples of these instances are in numerous entries in planter’s diaries and other sources: “Salley won’t go without her husband so I’ll have to sell him too.” “Joe if you come back home, you may have your choice of master.” “I had to whip Bill today because he would not go with me.” Our ancestors used every tool at their disposal and were not without agency of their own. Some of the ideas above have been documented by slavery scholar Ira Berlin and his team at the Freedmen and Southern Society Project. Tell me, what things have you learned during your research about slavery that surprised you? Robyn I am an engineer by day, but my true passion lies in genealogy. I have been a researcher, writer, and teacher for over twenty years. This blog is where I share family history strategies, resources, tips and advice for all genealogists. I also discuss researching slavery and its aftermath. This lifelong quest has helped me to better know my family’s past. I’ve taken back– reclaimed– some of that lost memory, especially that of my enslaved ancestors. I hope you’ll sign up to receive my posts—if you do, you’ll get a free PDF with some of my favorite tips! And please do share posts that interest you. Post Views: 34,327
OK, I confess that blog title is a little sensationalized. Much of this information becomes well-known to researchers of African-American families over the years. Family research turns many of us into walking, talking, beacons of history. It is an endlessly fascinating subject: epic, tragic and but often inspiring. Points to Remember Nevertheless, here are a few truths to keep in mind during your research. 1. Slavery was vastly different at different times and in different places. An enslaved person’s life in 1780 in Virginia would not look much like an enslaved person’s life in Georgia in 1850. The experience of an enslaved person in a city was different than one in a rural community. Different crops had different labor demands (cotton, rice, tobacco, indigo, sugar). Take the time to learn about the dynamic nature of slavery through Ira Berlin’s masterful book, Many Thousands Gone: The First Two Centuries of Slavery in North America. 2. South America (mainly Brazil) and the Caribbean islands took in most enslaved people from Africa during the African Slave Trade. Of those who came to the North American colonies (roughly 4%), most were here by 1795. That means many descendants of enslaved people have very long histories in this country. Many people descended from the enslaved have lineages that go back over 200 years. African Slave Trade map 3. Most enslaved people had surnames that were known among themselves, even though the white planters in most cases did not record those surnames (look at this amazing exception). The WPA slave interviews, civil war pensions, and freedman’s bank records are sources where you’ll find former slaves mentioning their parent’s entire names. 4. Don’t expect to always find entire families owned by the same person. There will be many instances where the enslaved father is owned by someone other than the owner of his wife and child/children. Library of Congress, LC-USZC4-4574 To find those spouses, check the neighbors of the enslaver. Many enslaved people found spouses on neighboring farms. Very young children, however, were often allowed to stay with their mothers. 5. Our image of enslaved people farming the plantation is incomplete. Slaves were employed in every conceivable occupation. They worked in shipyards and wharves, railroads and steamboats, merchant’s shops, coal mines, iron works, gristmills and sawmills. They worked as maids, seamstresses, tailors, masons, butchers, barbers, and so on. Especially for urban slaves, we need to consider all the ways other than farming they worked. Enslaved barber, John Hope 6. Understand the enormous impact of the domestic slave trade. Cotton exploded in the early 1800s with the invention of Eli Whitney’s cotton gin. Also, the African Slave Trade closed legally in 1808. This became a perfect storm of disaster for enslaved people. Traders and owners sold over one million slaves into the deep south and the expanding southwest. About 1/3 of those sold were children. This had a devastating impact on black families. Note the prevalence of the birthplace of Virginia or Maryland in the 1870 census in the southern states for African-Americans. 7. The enslaved were often bought and sold through slave traders. As they were private businesses, many of the records and receipts of these auction–style purchases do not survive. Slave traders had large networks of contracter-style buyers who roamed through rural areas buying slaves. Also, slaves were purchased from the estate sales of local slaveowners when they died. 8. There were about a half million free blacks in the country at the end of the Civil War. A little bit more than half of them lived in the South. 9. Local whites interacted with the enslaved population. Criminal court records are replete with people playing cards with slaves and selling them things. Slaves were also plied with liquor by their masters and others. Some enslaved people were allowed to make money, selling vegetables or other things they had. 10. Slavery was a negotiated relationship. Yes, masters had the final and violent upper hand. However, the master’s actions could be altered by a slave’s threatening to run away, refusing to do work, refusing to be sold to someone, and so on. Examples of these instances are in numerous entries in planter’s diaries and other sources: “Salley won’t go without her husband so I’ll have to sell him too.” “Joe if you come back home, you may have your choice of master.” “I had to whip Bill today because he would not go with me.” Our ancestors used every tool at their disposal and were not without agency of their own. Some of the ideas above have been documented by slavery scholar Ira Berlin and his team at the Freedmen and Southern Society Project. Tell me, what things have you learned during your research about slavery that surprised you? Robyn I am an engineer by day, but my true passion lies in genealogy. I have been a researcher, writer, and teacher for over twenty years. This blog is where I share family history strategies, resources, tips and advice for all genealogists. I also discuss researching slavery and its aftermath. This lifelong quest has helped me to better know my family’s past. I’ve taken back– reclaimed– some of that lost memory, especially that of my enslaved ancestors. I hope you’ll sign up to receive my posts—if you do, you’ll get a free PDF with some of my favorite tips! And please do share posts that interest you. Post Views: 34,327
I was at the Reginald Lewis Museum in Baltimore recently, presenting my first lecture on using land records effectively. The Lewis museum is dedicated to Maryland's African-American history. So, I wanted to focus not just on genealogical research, but also the unique history between land and African-Americans. That history starts with the failure of Reconstruction to
Nannie Barnes We cannot assume that anyone marked “mulatto” in a census record had one white parent and one black parent. I have previously discussed that genealogists should know some of the instructions provided to enumerators, and that the changing definitions of race, since it is a social and not a biological construct, should tell us something. The invention of race has created an endless number of thorny problems. Human beings, because we are one species, can’t reliably be categorized. There is no set of genes that appear in only one “group” of people. Of course, appearance alone can’t convey ancestry. And there’s the bothersome little fact that homo sapiens is a pretty horny species. There is no time in human history when populations did not mate and mix with other populations. You go back far enough in time and guess what? You’re “mixed.” An Eyeball Assessment What’s important to know about that mulatto designation is this: it was an eyeball assessment by the census-taker. They did not ask the person what their race or color was. We know this to be true, since many censuses reflect parents and children in the same house categorized differently. Look at these two 1870 Nashville households: Presumably, these are families, but the racial designators are different between parents and children, indicating the enumerator is looking at skin color. Mulatto in the Census In the post-emancipation timeframe, mulatto was a color designation in the 1870, 1880 and 1910, 1920 censuses. It was not a designation in 1900. So if you are wondering why your ancestor was suddenly “black” or “white” in that year, now you know why. By 1930, both black and mulatto categories were replaced with the word “negro.” In 1930’s racial guidance below, pay close attention to what it says about mixed race, Indian, and Mexican individuals: –A person of mixed white and Negro blood should be returned as a Negro, no matter how small the percentage of Negro blood. –Both black and mulatto persons are to be returned as Negroes, without distinction. A person of mixed Indian and Negro blood should be returned a Negro, unless the Indian blood predominates and the status as an Indian is generally accepted in the community –Other mixed races.-Any mixture of white and nonwhite should be reported according to the nonwhite parent. –Practically all Mexican laborers are of a racial mixture difficult to classify. ..all person born in Mexico, or having parents born in Mexico, who are not definitely white, Negro, Indian, Chinese, or Japanese, should be returned as Mexican (“Mex”). In 1940, the guidance stayed the same as above, but now Mexicans were to be returned as white: –Mexicans.-Mexicans are to be regarded as white unless definitely of Indian or other nonwhite race. Uncovering Interracial Unions Sometimes, thorough research can uncover potential interracial unions. As an example, I’ll use an ancestor from my research, Lucy Barnes, whose picture is shown below. She was born free abt. 1848 in Hardin County, Tennessee. Lucy Barnes Holt Lucy Barnes, fathered by a white man herself, gave birth to two interracial children when she was a teenager (ages 15 and 16). Her first son’s name was Joe Doran, and the second Felix Barnes. An 1874 county court record documented Felix’s apprenticeship to a white man named William P. Doran. The record described Felix as: “…the minor child of Lou Barnes (now wife of Saml Holt) said boy being an illegitimate mulatto child.” William Doran’s 1880 census household included Felix Barnes. Though he is initially called Felix Barnes, by the time of the 1920 census, he was using the name Felix Doran. In 1869, Lucy married a black man, Samuel Holt, and had five children with him, which the county court entry above mentions. I also have Lucy’s family bible, which includes her Doran-surnamed sons. William Doran Though what I share above is not all the evidence I’ve collected, it’s reasonable to posit that both Joe and Felix might be the biological children of William P. Doran. While interracial relationships were commonplace, it was not common for the children to carry the surname of the white father. Their surname is a clue. William Doran had a white wife and children, and lived in close proximity to Lucy. His proximity is another clue–he is just a few houses away from Lucy (Louisa) in the 1860 census below. He would have been 38 years old while she was about 14. Ideally, I’d want to find direct male descendants of William and the Doran boys for Y-DNA testing to draw any conclusions. But without it, the evidence is certainly suggestive of an interracial pairing. Closing Thoughts While the “tragic mulatto” became a popular trope, it is so important to understand that these “hidden in plain sight” interracial relationships and children existed all over the South. A Y-DNA test on a direct-line male descendant of the suspected father and progeny provides the best way to document these relationships. Without Y-DNA, many have also used autosomal DNA successfully (including me). Remember, no DNA test shows “% white” or “% black” or any of the other crazy ways folks have contrived to classify our ONE species. The terms “white” and “black” have no biological meaning. DNA tests reflect genetic mutations that are linked to the evolution of our species across continents. In the meantime, we can often still find clues in other sources. Until then, know that the only conclusion we can draw from a mulatto classification in a census is that the person appeared light-skinned to the census taker. Robyn I am an engineer by day, but my true passion lies in genealogy. I have been a researcher, writer, and teacher for over twenty years. This blog is where I share family history strategies, resources, tips and advice for all genealogists. I also discuss researching slavery and its aftermath. This lifelong quest has helped me to better know my family’s past. I’ve taken back– reclaimed– some of that lost memory, especially that of my enslaved ancestors. I hope you’ll sign up to receive my posts—if you do, you’ll get a free PDF with some of my favorite tips! And please do share posts that interest you. Post Views: 43,063
Nannie Barnes We cannot assume that anyone marked “mulatto” in a census record had one white parent and one black parent. I have previously discussed that genealogists should know some of the instructions provided to enumerators, and that the changing definitions of race, since it is a social and not a biological construct, should tell us something. The invention of race has created an endless number of thorny problems. Human beings, because we are one species, can’t reliably be categorized. There is no set of genes that appear in only one “group” of people. Of course, appearance alone can’t convey ancestry. And there’s the bothersome little fact that homo sapiens is a pretty horny species. There is no time in human history when populations did not mate and mix with other populations. You go back far enough in time and guess what? You’re “mixed.” An Eyeball Assessment What’s important to know about that mulatto designation is this: it was an eyeball assessment by the census-taker. They did not ask the person what their race or color was. We know this to be true, since many censuses reflect parents and children in the same house categorized differently. Look at these two 1870 Nashville households: Presumably, these are families, but the racial designators are different between parents and children, indicating the enumerator is looking at skin color. Mulatto in the Census In the post-emancipation timeframe, mulatto was a color designation in the 1870, 1880 and 1910, 1920 censuses. It was not a designation in 1900. So if you are wondering why your ancestor was suddenly “black” or “white” in that year, now you know why. By 1930, both black and mulatto categories were replaced with the word “negro.” In 1930’s racial guidance below, pay close attention to what it says about mixed race, Indian, and Mexican individuals: –A person of mixed white and Negro blood should be returned as a Negro, no matter how small the percentage of Negro blood. –Both black and mulatto persons are to be returned as Negroes, without distinction. A person of mixed Indian and Negro blood should be returned a Negro, unless the Indian blood predominates and the status as an Indian is generally accepted in the community –Other mixed races.-Any mixture of white and nonwhite should be reported according to the nonwhite parent. –Practically all Mexican laborers are of a racial mixture difficult to classify. ..all person born in Mexico, or having parents born in Mexico, who are not definitely white, Negro, Indian, Chinese, or Japanese, should be returned as Mexican (“Mex”). In 1940, the guidance stayed the same as above, but now Mexicans were to be returned as white: –Mexicans.-Mexicans are to be regarded as white unless definitely of Indian or other nonwhite race. Uncovering Interracial Unions Sometimes, thorough research can uncover potential interracial unions. As an example, I’ll use an ancestor from my research, Lucy Barnes, whose picture is shown below. She was born free abt. 1848 in Hardin County, Tennessee. Lucy Barnes Holt Lucy Barnes, fathered by a white man herself, gave birth to two interracial children when she was a teenager (ages 15 and 16). Her first son’s name was Joe Doran, and the second Felix Barnes. An 1874 county court record documented Felix’s apprenticeship to a white man named William P. Doran. The record described Felix as: “…the minor child of Lou Barnes (now wife of Saml Holt) said boy being an illegitimate mulatto child.” William Doran’s 1880 census household included Felix Barnes. Though he is initially called Felix Barnes, by the time of the 1920 census, he was using the name Felix Doran. In 1869, Lucy married a black man, Samuel Holt, and had five children with him, which the county court entry above mentions. I also have Lucy’s family bible, which includes her Doran-surnamed sons. William Doran Though what I share above is not all the evidence I’ve collected, it’s reasonable to posit that both Joe and Felix might be the biological children of William P. Doran. While interracial relationships were commonplace, it was not common for the children to carry the surname of the white father. Their surname is a clue. William Doran had a white wife and children, and lived in close proximity to Lucy. His proximity is another clue–he is just a few houses away from Lucy (Louisa) in the 1860 census below. He would have been 38 years old while she was about 14. Ideally, I’d want to find direct male descendants of William and the Doran boys for Y-DNA testing to draw any conclusions. But without it, the evidence is certainly suggestive of an interracial pairing. Closing Thoughts While the “tragic mulatto” became a popular trope, it is so important to understand that these “hidden in plain sight” interracial relationships and children existed all over the South. A Y-DNA test on a direct-line male descendant of the suspected father and progeny provides the best way to document these relationships. Without Y-DNA, many have also used autosomal DNA successfully (including me). Remember, no DNA test shows “% white” or “% black” or any of the other crazy ways folks have contrived to classify our ONE species. The terms “white” and “black” have no biological meaning. DNA tests reflect genetic mutations that are linked to the evolution of our species across continents. In the meantime, we can often still find clues in other sources. Until then, know that the only conclusion we can draw from a mulatto classification in a census is that the person appeared light-skinned to the census taker. Robyn I am an engineer by day, but my true passion lies in genealogy. I have been a researcher, writer, and teacher for over twenty years. This blog is where I share family history strategies, resources, tips and advice for all genealogists. I also discuss researching slavery and its aftermath. This lifelong quest has helped me to better know my family’s past. I’ve taken back– reclaimed– some of that lost memory, especially that of my enslaved ancestors. I hope you’ll sign up to receive my posts—if you do, you’ll get a free PDF with some of my favorite tips! And please do share posts that interest you. Post Views: 43,181
Nannie Barnes We cannot assume that anyone marked “mulatto” in a census record had one white parent and one black parent. I have previously discussed that genealogists should know some of the instructions provided to enumerators, and that the changing definitions of race, since it is a social and not a biological construct, should tell us something. The invention of race has created an endless number of thorny problems. Human beings, because we are one species, can’t reliably be categorized. There is no set of genes that appear in only one “group” of people. Of course, appearance alone can’t convey ancestry. And there’s the bothersome little fact that homo sapiens is a pretty horny species. There is no time in human history when populations did not mate and mix with other populations. You go back far enough in time and guess what? You’re “mixed.” An Eyeball Assessment What’s important to know about that mulatto designation is this: it was an eyeball assessment by the census-taker. They did not ask the person what their race or color was. We know this to be true, since many censuses reflect parents and children in the same house categorized differently. Look at these two 1870 Nashville households: Presumably, these are families, but the racial designators are different between parents and children, indicating the enumerator is looking at skin color. Mulatto in the Census In the post-emancipation timeframe, mulatto was a color designation in the 1870, 1880 and 1910, 1920 censuses. It was not a designation in 1900. So if you are wondering why your ancestor was suddenly “black” or “white” in that year, now you know why. By 1930, both black and mulatto categories were replaced with the word “negro.” In 1930’s racial guidance below, pay close attention to what it says about mixed race, Indian, and Mexican individuals: –A person of mixed white and Negro blood should be returned as a Negro, no matter how small the percentage of Negro blood. –Both black and mulatto persons are to be returned as Negroes, without distinction. A person of mixed Indian and Negro blood should be returned a Negro, unless the Indian blood predominates and the status as an Indian is generally accepted in the community –Other mixed races.-Any mixture of white and nonwhite should be reported according to the nonwhite parent. –Practically all Mexican laborers are of a racial mixture difficult to classify. ..all person born in Mexico, or having parents born in Mexico, who are not definitely white, Negro, Indian, Chinese, or Japanese, should be returned as Mexican (“Mex”). In 1940, the guidance stayed the same as above, but now Mexicans were to be returned as white: –Mexicans.-Mexicans are to be regarded as white unless definitely of Indian or other nonwhite race. Uncovering Interracial Unions Sometimes, thorough research can uncover potential interracial unions. As an example, I’ll use an ancestor from my research, Lucy Barnes, whose picture is shown below. She was born free abt. 1848 in Hardin County, Tennessee. Lucy Barnes Holt Lucy Barnes, fathered by a white man herself, gave birth to two interracial children when she was a teenager (ages 15 and 16). Her first son’s name was Joe Doran, and the second Felix Barnes. An 1874 county court record documented Felix’s apprenticeship to a white man named William P. Doran. The record described Felix as: “…the minor child of Lou Barnes (now wife of Saml Holt) said boy being an illegitimate mulatto child.” William Doran’s 1880 census household included Felix Barnes. Though he is initially called Felix Barnes, by the time of the 1920 census, he was using the name Felix Doran. In 1869, Lucy married a black man, Samuel Holt, and had five children with him, which the county court entry above mentions. I also have Lucy’s family bible, which includes her Doran-surnamed sons. William Doran Though what I share above is not all the evidence I’ve collected, it’s reasonable to posit that both Joe and Felix might be the biological children of William P. Doran. While interracial relationships were commonplace, it was not common for the children to carry the surname of the white father. Their surname is a clue. William Doran had a white wife and children, and lived in close proximity to Lucy. His proximity is another clue–he is just a few houses away from Lucy (Louisa) in the 1860 census below. He would have been 38 years old while she was about 14. Ideally, I’d want to find direct male descendants of William and the Doran boys for Y-DNA testing to draw any conclusions. But without it, the evidence is certainly suggestive of an interracial pairing. Closing Thoughts While the “tragic mulatto” became a popular trope, it is so important to understand that these “hidden in plain sight” interracial relationships and children existed all over the South. A Y-DNA test on a direct-line male descendant of the suspected father and progeny provides the best way to document these relationships. Without Y-DNA, many have also used autosomal DNA successfully (including me). Remember, no DNA test shows “% white” or “% black” or any of the other crazy ways folks have contrived to classify our ONE species. The terms “white” and “black” have no biological meaning. DNA tests reflect genetic mutations that are linked to the evolution of our species across continents. In the meantime, we can often still find clues in other sources. Until then, know that the only conclusion we can draw from a mulatto classification in a census is that the person appeared light-skinned to the census taker. Robyn I am an engineer by day, but my true passion lies in genealogy. I have been a researcher, writer, and teacher for over twenty years. This blog is where I share family history strategies, resources, tips and advice for all genealogists. I also discuss researching slavery and its aftermath. This lifelong quest has helped me to better know my family’s past. I’ve taken back– reclaimed– some of that lost memory, especially that of my enslaved ancestors. I hope you’ll sign up to receive my posts—if you do, you’ll get a free PDF with some of my favorite tips! And please do share posts that interest you. Post Views: 43,063
Civil War Pensions remain the crown jewel of genealogy research for those with enslaved ancestors. The first-hand descriptions of their lives in the testimonies, both before, during and after the war still take my breath away. Though I have no direct ancestors that served, I have some collateral ancestors who did. I also make it
Human collateral provided much of the capital for slaveholders to purchase more land and more slaves. This, in addition to enslaved people’s free labor, created much of the 18th century wealth that US growth and development depended upon. Edward Baptist elucidates how slavery drove capitalism in his book, The Half has Never Been Told: Slavery
OK, I confess that blog title is a little sensationalized. Much of this information becomes well-known to researchers of African-American families over the years. Family research turns many of us into walking, talking, beacons of history. It is an endlessly fascinating subject: epic, tragic and but often inspiring. Points to Remember Nevertheless, here are a few truths to keep in mind during your research. 1. Slavery was vastly different at different times and in different places. An enslaved person’s life in 1780 in Virginia would not look much like an enslaved person’s life in Georgia in 1850. The experience of an enslaved person in a city was different than one in a rural community. Different crops had different labor demands (cotton, rice, tobacco, indigo, sugar). Take the time to learn about the dynamic nature of slavery through Ira Berlin’s masterful book, Many Thousands Gone: The First Two Centuries of Slavery in North America. 2. South America (mainly Brazil) and the Caribbean islands took in most enslaved people from Africa during the African Slave Trade. Of those who came to the North American colonies (roughly 4%), most were here by 1795. That means many descendants of enslaved people have very long histories in this country. Many people descended from the enslaved have lineages that go back over 200 years. African Slave Trade map 3. Most enslaved people had surnames that were known among themselves, even though the white planters in most cases did not record those surnames (look at this amazing exception). The WPA slave interviews, civil war pensions, and freedman’s bank records are sources where you’ll find former slaves mentioning their parent’s entire names. 4. Don’t expect to always find entire families owned by the same person. There will be many instances where the enslaved father is owned by someone other than the owner of his wife and child/children. Library of Congress, LC-USZC4-4574 To find those spouses, check the neighbors of the enslaver. Many enslaved people found spouses on neighboring farms. Very young children, however, were often allowed to stay with their mothers. 5. Our image of enslaved people farming the plantation is incomplete. Slaves were employed in every conceivable occupation. They worked in shipyards and wharves, railroads and steamboats, merchant’s shops, coal mines, iron works, gristmills and sawmills. They worked as maids, seamstresses, tailors, masons, butchers, barbers, and so on. Especially for urban slaves, we need to consider all the ways other than farming they worked. Enslaved barber, John Hope 6. Understand the enormous impact of the domestic slave trade. Cotton exploded in the early 1800s with the invention of Eli Whitney’s cotton gin. Also, the African Slave Trade closed legally in 1808. This became a perfect storm of disaster for enslaved people. Traders and owners sold over one million slaves into the deep south and the expanding southwest. About 1/3 of those sold were children. This had a devastating impact on black families. Note the prevalence of the birthplace of Virginia or Maryland in the 1870 census in the southern states for African-Americans. 7. The enslaved were often bought and sold through slave traders. As they were private businesses, many of the records and receipts of these auction–style purchases do not survive. Slave traders had large networks of contracter-style buyers who roamed through rural areas buying slaves. Also, slaves were purchased from the estate sales of local slaveowners when they died. 8. There were about a half million free blacks in the country at the end of the Civil War. A little bit more than half of them lived in the South. 9. Local whites interacted with the enslaved population. Criminal court records are replete with people playing cards with slaves and selling them things. Slaves were also plied with liquor by their masters and others. Some enslaved people were allowed to make money, selling vegetables or other things they had. 10. Slavery was a negotiated relationship. Yes, masters had the final and violent upper hand. However, the master’s actions could be altered by a slave’s threatening to run away, refusing to do work, refusing to be sold to someone, and so on. Examples of these instances are in numerous entries in planter’s diaries and other sources: “Salley won’t go without her husband so I’ll have to sell him too.” “Joe if you come back home, you may have your choice of master.” “I had to whip Bill today because he would not go with me.” Our ancestors used every tool at their disposal and were not without agency of their own. Some of the ideas above have been documented by slavery scholar Ira Berlin and his team at the Freedmen and Southern Society Project. Tell me, what things have you learned during your research about slavery that surprised you? Robyn I am an engineer by day, but my true passion lies in genealogy. I have been a researcher, writer, and teacher for over twenty years. This blog is where I share family history strategies, resources, tips and advice for all genealogists. I also discuss researching slavery and its aftermath. This lifelong quest has helped me to better know my family’s past. I’ve taken back– reclaimed– some of that lost memory, especially that of my enslaved ancestors. I hope you’ll sign up to receive my posts—if you do, you’ll get a free PDF with some of my favorite tips! And please do share posts that interest you. Post Views: 34,327
Human collateral provided much of the capital for slaveholders to purchase more land and more slaves. This, in addition to enslaved people’s free labor, created much of the 18th century wealth that US growth and development depended upon. Edward Baptist elucidates how slavery drove capitalism in his book, The Half has Never Been Told: Slavery
Nannie Barnes We cannot assume that anyone marked “mulatto” in a census record had one white parent and one black parent. I have previously discussed that genealogists should know some of the instructions provided to enumerators, and that the changing definitions of race, since it is a social and not a biological construct, should tell us something. The invention of race has created an endless number of thorny problems. Human beings, because we are one species, can’t reliably be categorized. There is no set of genes that appear in only one “group” of people. Of course, appearance alone can’t convey ancestry. And there’s the bothersome little fact that homo sapiens is a pretty horny species. There is no time in human history when populations did not mate and mix with other populations. You go back far enough in time and guess what? You’re “mixed.” An Eyeball Assessment What’s important to know about that mulatto designation is this: it was an eyeball assessment by the census-taker. They did not ask the person what their race or color was. We know this to be true, since many censuses reflect parents and children in the same house categorized differently. Look at these two 1870 Nashville households: Presumably, these are families, but the racial designators are different between parents and children, indicating the enumerator is looking at skin color. Mulatto in the Census In the post-emancipation timeframe, mulatto was a color designation in the 1870, 1880 and 1910, 1920 censuses. It was not a designation in 1900. So if you are wondering why your ancestor was suddenly “black” or “white” in that year, now you know why. By 1930, both black and mulatto categories were replaced with the word “negro.” In 1930’s racial guidance below, pay close attention to what it says about mixed race, Indian, and Mexican individuals: –A person of mixed white and Negro blood should be returned as a Negro, no matter how small the percentage of Negro blood. –Both black and mulatto persons are to be returned as Negroes, without distinction. A person of mixed Indian and Negro blood should be returned a Negro, unless the Indian blood predominates and the status as an Indian is generally accepted in the community –Other mixed races.-Any mixture of white and nonwhite should be reported according to the nonwhite parent. –Practically all Mexican laborers are of a racial mixture difficult to classify. ..all person born in Mexico, or having parents born in Mexico, who are not definitely white, Negro, Indian, Chinese, or Japanese, should be returned as Mexican (“Mex”). In 1940, the guidance stayed the same as above, but now Mexicans were to be returned as white: –Mexicans.-Mexicans are to be regarded as white unless definitely of Indian or other nonwhite race. Uncovering Interracial Unions Sometimes, thorough research can uncover potential interracial unions. As an example, I’ll use an ancestor from my research, Lucy Barnes, whose picture is shown below. She was born free abt. 1848 in Hardin County, Tennessee. Lucy Barnes Holt Lucy Barnes, fathered by a white man herself, gave birth to two interracial children when she was a teenager (ages 15 and 16). Her first son’s name was Joe Doran, and the second Felix Barnes. An 1874 county court record documented Felix’s apprenticeship to a white man named William P. Doran. The record described Felix as: “…the minor child of Lou Barnes (now wife of Saml Holt) said boy being an illegitimate mulatto child.” William Doran’s 1880 census household included Felix Barnes. Though he is initially called Felix Barnes, by the time of the 1920 census, he was using the name Felix Doran. In 1869, Lucy married a black man, Samuel Holt, and had five children with him, which the county court entry above mentions. I also have Lucy’s family bible, which includes her Doran-surnamed sons. William Doran Though what I share above is not all the evidence I’ve collected, it’s reasonable to posit that both Joe and Felix might be the biological children of William P. Doran. While interracial relationships were commonplace, it was not common for the children to carry the surname of the white father. Their surname is a clue. William Doran had a white wife and children, and lived in close proximity to Lucy. His proximity is another clue–he is just a few houses away from Lucy (Louisa) in the 1860 census below. He would have been 38 years old while she was about 14. Ideally, I’d want to find direct male descendants of William and the Doran boys for Y-DNA testing to draw any conclusions. But without it, the evidence is certainly suggestive of an interracial pairing. Closing Thoughts While the “tragic mulatto” became a popular trope, it is so important to understand that these “hidden in plain sight” interracial relationships and children existed all over the South. A Y-DNA test on a direct-line male descendant of the suspected father and progeny provides the best way to document these relationships. Without Y-DNA, many have also used autosomal DNA successfully (including me). Remember, no DNA test shows “% white” or “% black” or any of the other crazy ways folks have contrived to classify our ONE species. The terms “white” and “black” have no biological meaning. DNA tests reflect genetic mutations that are linked to the evolution of our species across continents. In the meantime, we can often still find clues in other sources. Until then, know that the only conclusion we can draw from a mulatto classification in a census is that the person appeared light-skinned to the census taker. Robyn I am an engineer by day, but my true passion lies in genealogy. I have been a researcher, writer, and teacher for over twenty years. This blog is where I share family history strategies, resources, tips and advice for all genealogists. I also discuss researching slavery and its aftermath. This lifelong quest has helped me to better know my family’s past. I’ve taken back– reclaimed– some of that lost memory, especially that of my enslaved ancestors. I hope you’ll sign up to receive my posts—if you do, you’ll get a free PDF with some of my favorite tips! And please do share posts that interest you. Post Views: 43,181
