TCP/IP architecture does not exactly follow the OSI model. Unfortunately, there is no universal agreement regarding how to describe TCP/IP with a layered model. It is generally agreed that TCP/IP has fewer levels (from three to five layers) than the seven layers of the OSI model. We adopt a four layers model for the TCP/IP architecture. TCP/IP architecture omits some features found under the OSI model, combines the features of some adjacent OSI layers and splits other layers apart. The 4-layer structure of TCP/IP is built as information is passed down from applications to the physical network layer. When data is sent, each layer treats all of the information it receives from the upper layer as data, adds control information (header) to the front of that data and then pass it to the lower layer. When data is received, the opposite procedure takes place as each layer processes and removes its header before passing the data to the upper layer. The TCP/IP 4-layer model and the key functions of each layer is described below: Application Layer The Application Layer in TCP/IP groups the functions of OSI Application, Presentation Layer and Session Layer. Therefore any process above the transport layer is called an Application in the TCP/IP architecture. In TCP/IP socket and port are used to describe the path over which applications communicate. Most application level protocols are associated with one or more port number. Transport Layer In TCP/IP architecture, there are two Transport Layer protocols. The Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) guarantees information transmission. The User Datagram Protocol (UDP) transports datagram swithout end-to-end reliability checking. Both protocols are useful for different applications. Network Layer The Internet Protocol (IP) is the primary protocol in the TCP/IP Network Layer. All upper and lower layer communications must travel through IP as they are passed through the TCP/IP protocol stack. In addition, there are many supporting protocols in the Network Layer, such as ICMP, to facilitate and manage the routing process. Network Access Layer In the TCP/IP architecture, the Data Link Layer and Physical Layer are normally grouped together to become the Network Access layer. TCP/IP makes use of existing Data Link and Physical Layer standards rather than defining its own. Many RFCs describe how IP utilizes and interfaces with the existing data link protocols such as Ethernet, Token Ring, FDDI, HSSI, and ATM. The physical layer, which defines the hardware communication properties, is not often directly interfaced with the TCP/IP protocols in the network layer and above. OSI Layer
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With our archives now 3,500+ articles deep, we’ve decided to republish a classic piece each Sunday to help our newer readers discover some of the best, evergreen gems from the past. This article was originally published in September 2020. When it comes to trying to save a life — either someone else’s or your own […]
Do you have students who are biting? Are you looking for a visual biting social narrative that will help to reduce these behaviors? If so, this biting visual story is perfect for your autism and special education students. This social narrative is a great read for students who may need some support with biting. A lot of children bite others as a sign of frustration, anxiety, pain etc. - sometimes we may even find no explanation for why they are biting but hopefully this visual story will help reduce biting behaviours. It is a general book full of different things your mouth can be used for as well as why we shouldn't bite - how it makes others feel, and if we need to bite what we can do etc. Many students with autism are visual learners and like to learn through seeing something in action. This story comes complete with matching, simple yet engaging graphics to help describe what is being said on the page. Comes in col option only - no b/w availability, however you can print in grayscale. Pages included are; ♦ Sometimes I get angry. ♦ Feeling angry is ok. ♦ I may get angry if someone says something mean. ♦ I may get angry if I have to wait. ♦ When I get angry, I may bite someone. ♦ It is ok to feel angry. ♦ But it is not ok to bite. ♦ Biting hurts my friends and it will make them sad. ♦ It is ok to bite my chew toy. ♦ Sometimes, my teeth hurt and I want to bite. ♦ I can bite my chew toy or ask for help. ♦ I can use my mouth to do lots of nice things. ♦ I can use my mouth to eat food. ♦ I can use my mouth to sing songs. ♦ I can use my mouth to laugh. ♦ I can use my mouth to talk to others. ♦ I can use my mouth to whistle. ♦ I can use my mouth to drink. ♦ I can use my mouth to tell stories. ♦ I can use my mouth to smile. ♦ If I have bad teeth I can go to the dentist for help. ♦ I will remember to use my mouth to be kind. I recommend printing out each of the individual pages, laminating them and then binding them into a book so it will be easier for students to read - or be read to, as well as being stronger and longer lasting. ★ If you are looking for a social narrative that is personalized for your needs, check out my custom social narrative resource here. ★ Click below to find: • Social Narrative Stories • Life Skills Activities • Autism Classroom Resources ==================================================================================================== Once you have purchased this resource don't forget to come back and leave feedback to help you gain some TpT credits! If you want to keep up to date with my sales, new resources, freebies and so much more click the green ★ next to my store name! I love to see my resources in action in your classrooms, if you use one and would like to send me an image of it you can send to me @teachingautism on Instagram! Follow me here. What are TpT Credits? You can gain TpT credits by going back and leaving feedback on any purchases that you have made. The credits build up and then you can use them off future purchases - from any seller on TpT! ====================================================================================================
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#6 is genius.
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